| Preface |
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xxi | |
| About the Authors |
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xxxii | |
| Part I Introduction To Astronomy |
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1 Thinking Like an Astronomer |
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2 | (20) |
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1.1 Earth Occupies a Small Place in the Universe |
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4 | (3) |
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1.2 Science Is a Way of Viewing the Universe |
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7 | (5) |
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Process of Science The Scientific Method |
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9 | (3) |
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1.3 Astronomers Use Mathematics to Find Patterns |
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12 | (5) |
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Working It Out 1.1 Mathematical Tools |
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13 | (1) |
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Working It Out 1.2 Reading a Graph |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News A Universe of 2 Trillion Galaxies |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (4) |
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Exploration: Logical Fallacies |
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21 | (1) |
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2 Patterns in the Sky-Motions of Earth and the Moon |
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22 | (36) |
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2.1 Earth Spins on Its Axis |
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24 | (9) |
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Working It Out 2.1 How to Estimate Earth's Size |
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31 | (2) |
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2.2 Revolution about the Sun Leads to Changes during the Year |
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33 | (7) |
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Process of Science Theories Must Fit All the Known Facts |
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37 | (3) |
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2.3 The Moon's Appearance Changes as It Orbits Earth |
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40 | (3) |
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2.4 Calendars Are Based on the Day, Month, and Year |
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43 | (2) |
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2.5 Eclipses Result from the Alignment of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun |
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45 | (8) |
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Origins The Obliquity of Earth |
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51 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News 2,500 Miles of Citizen Scientists |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (3) |
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Exploration: The Phases of the Moon |
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57 | (1) |
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3 Motion of Astronomical Bodies |
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58 | (24) |
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3.1 The Motions of Planets in the Sky |
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60 | (4) |
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Working It Out 3.1 How Copernicus Computed Orbital Periods and Scaled the Solar System |
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64 | (1) |
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3.2 Kepler's Laws Describe Planetary Motion |
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64 | (6) |
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Process of Science Theories Are Falsifiable |
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67 | (1) |
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Working It Out 3.2 Kepler's Third Law |
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68 | (2) |
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3.3 Galileo's Observations Supported the Heliocentric Model |
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70 | (1) |
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3.4 Newton's Three Laws Help Explain How Celestial Bodies Move |
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71 | (6) |
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Working It Out 3.3 Using Newton's Laws |
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74 | (1) |
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Origins Planets and Orbits |
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75 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News NASA Spacecraft Take Spring Break at Mars |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (1) |
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77 | (1) |
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77 | (4) |
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Exploration: Kepler's Laws |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (26) |
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4.1 Gravity Is an Attractive Force between Objects |
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84 | (5) |
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Working It Out 4.1 Playing with Newton's Laws of Motion and Gravitation |
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87 | (2) |
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4.2 An Orbit Is One Body "Falling Around" Another |
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89 | (6) |
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Process of Science Universality |
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91 | (3) |
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Working It Out 4.2 Circular Velocity and Escape Velocity |
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94 | (1) |
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Working It Out 4.3 Calculating Mass from Orbital Periods |
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95 | (1) |
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4.3 Tidal Forces Are Caused by Gravity |
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95 | (4) |
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Working It Out 4.4 Tidal Forces |
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98 | (1) |
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4.4 Tidal Forces Affect Solid Bodies |
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99 | (4) |
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Origins Tidal Forces and Life |
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101 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Exploding Stars Prove Newton's Law of Gravity Unchanged over Cosmic Time |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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103 | (4) |
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Exploration: Newton's Laws |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (32) |
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5.1 Light Brings Us the News of the Universe |
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110 | (6) |
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Process of Science Agreement between Fields |
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115 | (1) |
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Working It Out 5.1 Working with Electromagnetic Radiation |
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116 | (1) |
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5.2 The Quantum View of Matter Explains Spectral Lines |
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116 | (8) |
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5.3 The Doppler Shift Indicates Motion Toward or Away from Us |
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124 | (2) |
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Working It Out 5.2 Making Use of the Doppler Effect |
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125 | (1) |
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5.4 Temperature Affects the Spectrum of Light That an Object Emits |
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126 | (4) |
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Working It Out 5.3 Working with the Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Wien's Law |
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130 | (1) |
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5.5 The Brightness of Light Depends on the Luminosity and Distance of the Source |
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130 | (5) |
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Working It Out 5.4 Using Radiation Laws to Calculate Equilibrium Temperatures of Planets |
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132 | (1) |
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Origins Temperatures of Planets |
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133 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News A Study in Scarlet |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (3) |
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Exploration: Light as a Wave |
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139 | (1) |
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6 The Tools of the Astronomer |
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140 | (30) |
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6.1 The Optical Telescope Revolutionized Astronomy |
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142 | (8) |
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Working It Out 6.1 Telescope Aperture and Magnification |
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144 | (4) |
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Working It Out 6.2 Diffraction Limit |
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148 | (2) |
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6.2 Optical Detectors and Instruments Used with Telescopes |
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150 | (3) |
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6.3 Astronomers Observe in Wavelengths Beyond the Visible |
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153 | (4) |
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6.4 Planetary Spacecraft Explore the Solar System |
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157 | (2) |
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6.5 Other Tools Contribute to the Study of the Universe |
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159 | (6) |
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Process of Science Technology and Science Are Symbiotic |
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161 | (1) |
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Origins Microwave Telescopes Detect Radiation from the Big Bang |
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162 | (2) |
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Reading Astronomy News Construction Begins on the World's First Super Telescope |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (3) |
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Exploration: Geometric Optics and Lenses |
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169 | (1) |
| Part II The Solar System |
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7 The Formation of Planetary Systems |
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170 | (26) |
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7.1 Planetary Systems Form around a Star |
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172 | (3) |
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Process of Science Converging Lines of Inquiry |
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174 | (1) |
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7.2 The Solar System Began with a Disk |
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175 | (3) |
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Working It Out 7.1 Angular Momentum |
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177 | (1) |
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7.3 The Inner Disk and Outer Disk Formed at Different Temperatures |
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178 | (3) |
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7.4 The Formation of Our Solar System |
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181 | (2) |
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7.5 Planetary Systems Are Common |
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183 | (8) |
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Working It Out 7.2 Estimating the Size of the Orbit of a Planet |
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185 | (2) |
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Working It Out 7.3 Estimating the Radius of an Exoplanet |
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187 | (2) |
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Origins The Search for Earth-Sized Planets |
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189 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Four Earth-Sized Planets Detected Orbiting the Nearest Sun-like Star |
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190 | (1) |
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191 | (1) |
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191 | (1) |
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192 | (3) |
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Exploration: Exploring Exoplanets |
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195 | (1) |
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8 The Terrestrial Planets and Earth's Moon |
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196 | (34) |
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8.1 Impacts Help Shape the Evolution of the Planets |
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198 | (5) |
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Process of Science Certainty Is Sometimes Out of Reach |
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202 | (1) |
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8.2 Radioactive Dating Tells Us the Age of the Moon and the Solar System |
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203 | (2) |
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Working It Out 8.1 Computing the Ages of Rocks |
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204 | (1) |
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8.3 The Surface of a Terrestrial Planet Is Affected by Processes in the Interior |
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205 | (5) |
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Working It Out 8.2 How Planets Cool |
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208 | (2) |
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8.4 Planetary Surfaces Evolve through Tectonism |
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210 | (5) |
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8.5 Volcanism Signifies a Geologically Active Planet |
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215 | (3) |
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8.6 The Geological Evidence for Water |
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218 | (7) |
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Origins The Death of the Dinosaurs |
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223 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Moon Had a Magnetic Field for at Least a Billion Years Longer than Thought |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (3) |
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Exploration: Exponential Behavior |
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229 | (1) |
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9 Atmospheres of the Terrestrial Planets |
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230 | (34) |
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9.1 Atmospheres Change over Time |
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232 | (2) |
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9.2 Secondary Atmospheres Evolve |
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234 | (4) |
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Working It Out 9.1 Atmosphere Retention |
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235 | (3) |
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9.3 Earth's Atmosphere Has Detailed Structure |
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238 | (8) |
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9.4 The Atmospheres of Venus and Mars Differ from Earth's |
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246 | (3) |
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9.5 Greenhouse Gases Affect Global Climates |
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249 | (9) |
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Process of Science Thinking about Complexity |
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254 | (1) |
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Origins Our Special Planet |
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255 | (2) |
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Reading Astronomy News NASA's Maven Spacecraft Unlocks the Mystery of Mars's Lost Atmosphere |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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259 | (4) |
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Exploration: Climate Change |
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263 | (1) |
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10 Worlds of Gas and Liquid-The Giant Planets |
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264 | (28) |
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10.1 The Giant Planets Are Large, Cold, and Massive |
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266 | (5) |
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Process of Science Scientific Laws Make Testable Predictions |
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268 | (3) |
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10.2 The Giant Planets Have Clouds and Weather |
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271 | (6) |
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Working It Out 10.1 Measuring Wind Speeds on Different Planets |
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276 | (1) |
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10.3 The Interiors of the Giant Planets Are Hot and Dense |
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277 | (3) |
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Working It Out 10.2 Internal Thermal Energy Heats the Giant Planets |
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278 | (2) |
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10.4 The Giant Planets Are Magnetic Powerhouses |
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280 | (3) |
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10.5 The Planets of Our Solar System Might Not Be Typical |
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283 | (4) |
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Origins Giant Planet Migration and the Inner Solar System |
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285 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Juno Spacecraft Spots Jupiter's Great Red Spot |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (1) |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (3) |
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Exploration: Estimating Rotation Periods of the Giant Planets |
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291 | (1) |
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11 Planetary Moons and Rings |
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292 | (28) |
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11.1 Many Solar System Planets Have Moons |
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294 | (3) |
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Working It Out 11.1 Using Moons to Compute the Mass of a Planet |
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296 | (1) |
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11.2 Some Moons Have Geological Activity and Water |
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297 | (7) |
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Working It Out 11.2 Tidal Forces on the Moons |
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299 | (5) |
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11.3 Rings Surround the Giant Planets |
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304 | (4) |
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Working It Out 11.3 Feeding the Rings |
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308 | (1) |
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11.4 Ring Systems Have a Complex Structure |
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308 | (7) |
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Process of Science Following Up on the Unexpected |
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311 | (2) |
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Origins Extreme Environments |
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313 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy NASA Killed Cassini to Avoid Contaminating Saturn's Moons |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (3) |
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Exploration: Measuring Features on lo |
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319 | (1) |
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12 Dwarf Planets and Small Solar System Bodies |
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320 | (32) |
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12.1 Dwarf Planets May Outnumber Planets |
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322 | (4) |
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Process of Science How to Classify Pluto |
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324 | (2) |
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Working It Out 12.1 Eccentric Orbits |
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326 | (1) |
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12.2 Asteroids Are Pieces of the Past |
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326 | (5) |
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12.3 Comets Are Clumps of Ice |
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331 | (7) |
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12.4 Meteorites Are Remnants of the Early Solar System |
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338 | (4) |
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12.5 Comet and Asteroid Collisions Still Happen Today |
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342 | (5) |
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Working It Out 12.2 Impact Energy |
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344 | (1) |
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Origins Comets, Asteroids, Meteoroids, and Life |
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345 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Rosetta Spacecraft Finds Water on Earth Didn't Come from Comets |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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348 | (3) |
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Exploration: Asteroid Discovery |
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351 | (1) |
| Part III Stars And Stellar Evolution |
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13 Taking the Measure of Stars |
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352 | (30) |
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13.1 Astronomers Measure the Distance, Brightness, and Luminosity of Stars |
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354 | (5) |
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Working It Out 13.1 Parallax and Distance |
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357 | (1) |
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Working It Out 13.2 The Magnitude System |
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358 | (1) |
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13.2 Astronomers Can Determine the Temperature, Size, and Composition of Stars |
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359 | (6) |
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Working It Out 13.3 Estimating the Sizes of Stars |
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364 | (1) |
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13.3 Measuring the Masses of Stars in Binary Systems |
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365 | (4) |
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Working It Out 13.4 Measuring the Mass of an Eclipsing Binary Pair |
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368 | (1) |
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13.4 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram Is the Key to Understanding Stars |
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369 | (8) |
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Process of Science Science Is Collaborative |
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372 | (3) |
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375 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News NASA's Hubble Extends Stellar Tape Measure 10 Times Farther into Space |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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378 | (3) |
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Exploration: The H-R Diagram |
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381 | (1) |
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382 | (28) |
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14.1 The Sun Is Powered by Nuclear Fusion |
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384 | (5) |
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Working It Out 14.1 The Source of the Sun's Energy |
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386 | (3) |
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14.2 Energy Is Transferred from the Interior of the Sun |
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389 | (5) |
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Process of Science Learning from Failure |
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392 | (2) |
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14.3 The Atmosphere of the Sun |
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394 | (2) |
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14.4 The Atmosphere of the Sun Is Very Active |
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396 | (9) |
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Working It Out 14.2 Sunspots and Temperature |
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398 | (5) |
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Origins The Solar Wind and Life |
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403 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Carrington-Class CME Narrowly Misses Earth |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (3) |
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Exploration: The Proton-Proton Chain |
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409 | (1) |
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15 The Interstellar Medium and Star Formation |
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410 | (28) |
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15.1 The Interstellar Medium Fills the Space between the Stars |
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412 | (8) |
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Working It Out 15.1 Dust Glows in the Infrared |
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415 | (4) |
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Process of Science All Branches of Science Are Interconnected |
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419 | (1) |
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15.2 Molecular Clouds Are the Cradles of Star Formation |
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420 | (2) |
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15.3 Formation and Evolution of Protostars |
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422 | (5) |
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15.4 Evolution before the Main Sequence |
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427 | (6) |
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Working It Out 15.2 Luminosity, Surface Temperature, and Radius of Protostars |
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428 | (3) |
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Origins Star Formation, Planets, and Life |
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431 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Interstellar Dust Discovered inside NASA Spacecraft |
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432 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
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434 | (3) |
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Exploration: The Stellar Thermostat |
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437 | (1) |
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16 Evolution of Low-Mass Stars |
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438 | (30) |
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16.1 The Life of a Main-Sequence Star Depends on Its Mass |
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440 | (3) |
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Working It Out 16.1 Estimating Main-Sequence Lifetimes |
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442 | (1) |
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16.2 The Star Leaves the Main Sequence |
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443 | (4) |
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16.3 Helium Fuses in the Degenerate Core |
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447 | (3) |
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16.4 Dying Stars Shed Their Outer Layers |
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450 | (6) |
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Working It Out 16.2 Escaping the Surface of an Evolved Star |
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451 | (5) |
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16.5 Binary Star Evolution |
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456 | (7) |
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Origins Stellar Lifetimes and Biological Evolution |
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460 | (1) |
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Process of Science Science Is Unfinished |
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461 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Scientists Solve Riddle of Celestial Archaeology |
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462 | (1) |
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463 | (1) |
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463 | (1) |
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464 | (3) |
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Exploration: Low-Mass Stellar Evolution |
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467 | (1) |
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17 Evolution of High-Mass Stars |
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468 | (28) |
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17.1 High-Mass Stars Follow Their Own Path |
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470 | (4) |
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17.2 High-Mass Stars Go Out with a Bang |
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474 | (5) |
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Working It Out 17.1 Binding Energy of Atomic Nuclei |
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475 | (4) |
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17.3 The Spectacle and Legacy of Supernovae |
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479 | (6) |
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Working It Out 17.2 Gravity on a Neutron Star |
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481 | (1) |
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Process of Science Occam's Razor |
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482 | (3) |
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17.4 Star Clusters Are Snapshots of Stellar Evolution |
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485 | (6) |
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Origins Seeding the Universe with New Chemical Elements |
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489 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News Astronomers Find Mass Limit for Neutron Stars Before Collapsing into Black Holes |
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490 | (1) |
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491 | (1) |
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491 | (1) |
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492 | (3) |
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Exploration: The CNO Cycle |
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495 | (1) |
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18 Relativity and Black Holes |
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496 | (28) |
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18.1 Relative Motion Affects Measured Velocities |
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498 | (2) |
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18.2 Special Relativity Explains How Time and Space Are Related |
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500 | (6) |
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Working It Out 18.1 Time Dilation |
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505 | (1) |
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18.3 Gravity Is a Distortion of Spacetime |
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506 | (6) |
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Process of Science New Science Can Encompass the Old |
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510 | (2) |
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512 | (7) |
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Working It Out 18.2 Masses in X-ray Binaries |
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516 | (1) |
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516 | (2) |
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Reading Astronomy News LIGO Just Detected the Oldest Gravitational Waves Ever Discovered |
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518 | (1) |
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519 | (1) |
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519 | (1) |
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520 | (3) |
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523 | (1) |
| Part IV Galaxies, The Universe, And Cosmology |
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524 | (30) |
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19.1 Galaxies Come in Different Shapes and Sizes |
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526 | (6) |
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19.2 Astronomers Use Several Methods to Find Distances to Galaxies |
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532 | (4) |
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Working It Out 19.1 Finding the Distance from a Type la Supernova |
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534 | (2) |
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Working It Out 19.2 Redshift-Calculating the Recession Velocity and Distance of Galaxies |
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536 | (1) |
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19.3 Galaxies Are Mostly Dark Matter |
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536 | (3) |
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19.4 Most Galaxies Have a Supermassive Black Hole at the Center |
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539 | (10) |
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Working It Out 19.3 The Size, Density, and Power of a Supermassive Black Hole |
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543 | (2) |
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Process of Science Finding the Common Thread |
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545 | (2) |
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Origins Habitability in Galaxies |
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547 | (1) |
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Reading Astronomy News A Lot of Galaxies Need Guarding in This NASA Hubble View |
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548 | (1) |
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549 | (1) |
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549 | (1) |
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550 | (3) |
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Exploration: Galaxy Classification |
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553 | (1) |
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20 The Milky Way-A Normal Spiral Galaxy |
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554 | (26) |
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20.1 Astronomers Have Measured the Size and Structure of the Milky Way |
|
|
556 | (4) |
|
20.2 The Components of the Milky Way Reveal Its Evolution |
|
|
560 | (6) |
|
Process of Science Unknown Unknowns |
|
|
561 | (5) |
|
20.3 Most of the Milky Way Is Unseen |
|
|
566 | (4) |
|
Working It Out 20.1 The Mass of the Milky Way inside the Sun's Orbit |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
Working It Out 20.2 The Mass of the Milky Way's Central Black Hole |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
20.4 The History and Future of the Milky Way |
|
|
570 | (5) |
|
Origins The Galactic Habitable Zone |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Reading Astronomy News You Are Here: Scientists Unveil Precise Map of More Than a Billion Stars |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
|
576 | (3) |
|
Exploration: The Center of the Milky Way |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
21 The Expanding Universe |
|
|
580 | (24) |
|
21.1 The Cosmological Principle |
|
|
582 | (5) |
|
Process of Science Data Are the Ultimate Authority |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
21.2 The Universe Began in the Big Bang |
|
|
587 | (3) |
|
Working It Out 21.1 Expansion and the Age of the Universe |
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
21.3 Expansion Is Described with a Scale Factor |
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
21.4 Astronomers Observe Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation |
|
|
592 | (7) |
|
Working It Out 21.2 When Redshift Exceeds 1 |
|
|
593 | (3) |
|
Origins Big Bang Nucleosynthesis |
|
|
596 | (2) |
|
Reading Astronomy News 50th Anniversary of the Big Bang Discovery |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
|
|
599 | (4) |
|
Exploration: Hubble's Law for Balloons |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
|
604 | (30) |
|
22.1 Gravity and the Expansion of the Universe |
|
|
606 | (2) |
|
Working It Out 22.1 Calculating the Critical Density |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
22.2 The Accelerating Universe |
|
|
608 | (6) |
|
Process of Science Never Throw Anything Away |
|
|
610 | (4) |
|
22.3 Inflation Solves Several Problems in Cosmology |
|
|
614 | (4) |
|
22.4 The Earliest Moments of the Universe Connect the Very Largest Size Scales to the Very Smallest |
|
|
618 | (6) |
|
Working It Out 22.2 Pair Production in the Early Universe |
|
|
620 | (4) |
|
22.5 String Theory and Multiverses |
|
|
624 | (5) |
|
Origins Our Own Universe Must Support Life |
|
|
626 | (2) |
|
Reading Astronomy News Astronomers Find Half of the Missing Matter in the Universe |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
|
630 | (3) |
|
Exploration: Studying Particles |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
23 Large-Scale Structure in the Universe |
|
|
634 | (26) |
|
23.1 Galaxies Form Groups, Clusters, and Larger Structures |
|
|
636 | (3) |
|
Working It Out 23.1 Mass of a Cluster of Galaxies |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
23.2 Gravity Forms Large-Scale Structure |
|
|
639 | (4) |
|
23.3 First Light of Stars and Galaxies |
|
|
643 | (6) |
|
Process of Science Multiple Streams of Evidence |
|
|
644 | (3) |
|
Working It Out 23.2 Observing High-Redshift Objects |
|
|
647 | (2) |
|
|
|
649 | (7) |
|
Origins We Are the 4 or 5 Percent |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
Reading Astronomy News Welcome to Laniakea, Your Galactic Supercluster Home |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (3) |
|
Exploration: The Story of a Proton |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | |
|
24.1 Life Evolves on Earth |
|
|
662 | (5) |
|
Working It Out 24.1 Exponential Growth |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
24.2 Life Involves Complex Chemical Processes |
|
|
667 | (2) |
|
Process of Science All of Science Is Interconnected |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
24.3 Where Do Astronomers Look for Life? |
|
|
669 | (6) |
|
24.4 Scientists Are Searching for Signs of Intelligent Life |
|
|
675 | (6) |
|
Working It Out 24.2 Putting Numbers into the Drake Equation |
|
|
676 | (2) |
|
Origins The Fate of Life on Earth |
|
|
678 | (2) |
|
Reading Astronomy News When Reporting News about Aliens, Caution Is Advised |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (3) |
|
Exploration: Fermi Problems and the Drake Equation |
|
|
685 | |
| Appendix 1 Mathematical Tools |
|
A-1 | |
| Appendix 2 Physical Constants and Units |
|
A-6 | |
| Appendix 3 Periodic Table of the Elements |
|
A-8 | |
| Appendix 4 Properties of Planets, Dwarf Planets, and Moons |
|
A-9 | |
| Appendix 5 Space Missions |
|
A-13 | |
| Appendix 6 Brightest Stars |
|
A-15 | |
| Appendix 7 Observing the Sky |
|
A-16 | |
| Appendix 8 Uniform Circular Motion and Circular Orbits |
|
A-25 | |
| Glossary G-1 Selected Answers |
|
SA-1 | |
| Credits |
|
C-1 | |
| Index |
|
I-1 | |
