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El. knyga: Advanced Concepts for Renewable Energy Supply of Data Centres

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The rapid increase of cloud computing, high performance computing (HPC) and the vast growth in Internet and Social Media use have aroused the interest in energy consumption and the carbon footprint of Data Centers. Data Centers primarily contain electronic equipment used for data processing (servers), data storage (storage equipment), and communications (network equipment). Collectively, this equipment processes, stores, and transmits digital information and is known as information technology (IT) equipment.

Advanced Concepts for Renewable Energy Supply of Data Centres introduces a number of technical solutions for the supply of power and cooling energy into Data Centers with enhanced utilization of renewable energy sources in order to achieve low energy Data Centers. Because of the high energy density nature of these unique infrastructures, it is essential to implement energy efficiency measures and reduce consumption before introducing any renewable energy source. A holistic approach is used with the objective of integrating many technical solutions such as management of the IT (Information Technology) load, efficient electrical supply to the IT systems, Low-Ex air-conditioning systems, interaction with district heating and cooling networks, re-use of heat, free cooling (air, seawater, groundwater), optimal use of heat and cold storage, electrical storage and integration in smart grids.

This book is therefore a catalog of advanced technical concepts that could be integrated into Data Centers portfolios in order to increase the overall efficiency and the share of renewable energies in power and cooling supply. Based on dynamic energy models implemented in TRNSYS, some concepts are deeply evaluated through yearly simulations. The results of the simulation are illustrated with Sankey charts, where the energy flows per year within the subsystems of each concept for a selected scenario are shown, and graphs showing the results of parametric analysis. A set of environmental metrics (as the non-renewable primary energy) and financial metrics (CAPEX and OPEX) as well of energy efficiency metrics like the well-known PUE, are described and used to evaluate the different technical concepts.
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
List of Contributors xv
List of Figures xvii
List of Tables xxix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xxxiii
1 Data Centre Overview 1(26)
Eduard Oro
Jaume Salom
1.1 Data Centre Infrastructure
1(1)
1.1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Main Subsystems
2(6)
1.2.1 IT Equipment
2(1)
1.2.2 Power System
3(3)
1.2.3 Cooling System
6(2)
1.3 Data Centre Archetypes
8(4)
1.3.1 Function or Objective of the Data Centre
8(2)
1.3.2 Size
10(1)
1.3.3 Location and Surroundings
10(1)
1.3.4 Archetypes Definition
10(2)
1.4 Workload Typology
12(4)
1.4.1 Web Workloads
12(1)
1.4.2 HPC Workloads
13(1)
1.4.3 Data Workloads
14(1)
1.4.4 Consumption versus Workload Typology
15(1)
1.5 Redundancy Level
16(6)
1.5.1 Basic Definitions
16(2)
1.5.2 Tier Levels
18(4)
1.6 Future Trends
22(2)
References
24(3)
2 Operational Requirement 27(14)
Eduard Oro
Victor Depoorter
Jaume Salom
2.1 Working Temperature Limit
27(3)
2.1.1 Impact of Server Inlet Temperature
27(1)
2.1.2 Permitted Temperatures of Individual Components
28(1)
2.1.3 CPU Power Management and Throttling
29(1)
2.2 Environmental Conditions
30(3)
2.2.1 Temperature and Humidity Requirements
30(2)
2.2.2 Quality of the Room Air
32(1)
2.3 Power Quality
33(6)
2.3.1 Input Voltage within Acceptable Limits
33(1)
2.3.2 Input Frequency within Allowable Ranges
34(1)
2.3.3 Sufficient Input Power to Compensate for Power Factor
34(2)
2.3.4 Transfer to Backup Power Faster than PSU "Hold-up" Time
36(1)
2.3.5 Protection from Damaging Power Conditions
37(2)
References
39(2)
3 Environmental and Economic Metrics for Data Centres 41(36)
Jaume Salom
Albert Garcia
3.1 About Metrics in Data Centres
41(3)
3.2 Data Centre Boundaries for Metrics Calculation
44(3)
3.2.1 Definition of Boundaries
44(1)
3.2.2 Energy Flows
45(2)
3.3 Metrics for Cost-Environmental Analysis
47(7)
3.3.1 Environmental Impact Metrics
47(3)
3.3.1.1 Data Centre primary energy
47(3)
3.3.1.2 Data Centre CO2 emissions
50(1)
3.3.1.3 Data Centre water consumption
50(1)
3.3.2 Financial Metrics
50(3)
3.3.2.1 Methodological reference framework
50(1)
3.3.2.2 Global cost
51(1)
3.3.2.3 CAPEX: capital expenditure
52(1)
3.3.2.4 OPEX: operating expenditure
52(1)
3.3.3 Cost-Efficiency Analysis
53(1)
3.4 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Metrics
54(3)
3.4.1 Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE)
54(1)
3.4.2 Renewable Energy Ratio
55(2)
3.4.3 Renewable Energy Factor
57(1)
3.5 Capacity Metrics
57(3)
3.5.1 Introduction
57(2)
3.5.2 Capacity Metrics
59(1)
3.6 Examples
60(12)
3.6.1 Example
1. PV System and Ice Storage
61(5)
3.6.2 Example
2. District Cooling and Heat Reuse
66(6)
References
72(5)
4 Advanced Technical Concepts for Efficient Electrical Distribution and IT Management 77(26)
Eduard Oro
Mauro Canuto
Albert Garcia
4.1 Advanced Technical Concepts for Efficient IT Management
77(11)
4.2 Advanced Technical Concepts for Efficient Electric Power Distribution
88(10)
4.2.1 Introduction
88(2)
4.2.2 Modular UPS
90(2)
4.2.3 Bypassed UPS
92(2)
4.2.4 Enhanced UPS for Electrical Energy Storage
94(4)
References
98(5)
5 Advanced Technical Concepts for Low-Exergy Climate and Cooling Distribution 103(36)
Nirendra Lal Shrestha
Thomas Oppelt
Verena Rudolf
Thorsten Urbaneck
5.1 Introduction
103(1)
5.2 Free Cooling
104(18)
5.2.1 Free Cooling with Direct Ambient Air
106(4)
5.2.2 Free Cooling with Indirect Ambient Air
110(6)
5.2.3 Seawater Air Conditioning System
116(1)
5.2.4 Free Cooling with Groundwater
117(5)
5.3 Increasing Allowable IT Temperatures
122(4)
5.3.1 Increased White Space Temperature with Airside Cooling
122(2)
5.3.2 Increased White Space Temperature with Chilled Water Cooling
124(1)
5.3.3 Increasing the Delta T Through the IT Equipment
125(1)
5.4 Hot or Cold Aisle Containment
126(1)
5.5 Variable Airflow
127(4)
5.5.1 Strategy A: Pressure Difference
128(1)
5.5.2 Strategy B: Actual IT load
129(1)
5.5.3 Strategy C: Return Air Temperature
129(2)
5.6 Partial Load-Redundant or Oversized Components
131(4)
5.6.1 Redundant Components and Oversizing Components
131(1)
5.6.2 Partial Load with Chillers
132(1)
5.6.3 Variable Flow with Fans and Pumps
132(2)
5.6.4 Oversizing Dry Coolers and Cooling Towers
134(1)
5.6.5 Energy Savings and Payback Periods
134(1)
5.7 High Energy Efficiency Components
135(2)
5.7.1 Fans and Pumps
135(1)
5.7.2 Air-Cooled Chillers
135(1)
5.7.3 Water-Cooled Chillers
136(1)
5.8 Conclusions
137(1)
References
138(1)
6 Advanced Technical Concepts for Power and Cooling Supply with Renewables 139(38)
Verena Rudolf
Nirendra Lal Shrestha
Noah Pflugradt
Eduard Oro
Thorsten Urbaneck
Jaume Salom
6.1 Introduction
139(3)
6.1.1 Concepts Overview
140(2)
6.1.1.1 Sankey charts analysis
142(1)
6.2 Description of the Proposed Advanced Technical Concepts
142(30)
6.2.1 Photovoltaic System and Wind Turbines with Vapour-Compression Chiller and Lead-Acid Batteries
143(5)
6.2.2 District Cooling and Heat Reuse
148(4)
6.2.3 Grid-Fed Wet Cooling Tower Without Chiller
152(5)
6.2.4 Grid-Fed Vapour-Compression Chiller with Electrical Energy and Chilled Water Storages
157(5)
6.2.5 Biogas Fuel Cell with Absorption Chiller
162(5)
6.2.6 Reciprocating Engine CHP with Absorption Chiller
167(5)
References
172(5)
7 Applying Advanced Technical Concepts to Selected Scenarios 177(64)
Verena Rudolf
Nirendra Lal Shrestha
Eduard Oro
Thorsten Urbaneck
Jaume Salom
7.1 Overview of Concept Performance
177(6)
7.2 Concept Comparison for Selected Scenarios
183(7)
7.2.1 Description of Scenarios Analysed
183(7)
7.3 Detailed Analysis by Advanced Technical Concept
190(40)
7.3.1 Introduction
190(1)
7.3.2 Concept
1. Photovoltaic System and Wind Turbines with Vapour-Compression Chiller
190(8)
7.3.2.1 Influence of energy efficiency measures
190(5)
7.3.2.2 Influence of size
195(1)
7.3.2.3 On-Site renewable energy systems implementation
196(2)
7.3.3 Concept
2. District Cooling and Heat Reuse
198(6)
7.3.3.1 Influence of energy efficiency measures
198(4)
7.3.3.2 Influence of size
202(1)
7.3.3.3 Influence of the liquid cooling solution and the potential heat reuse
203(1)
7.3.4 Concept
3. Grid-FedWet Cooling Tower without Chiller
204(6)
7.3.4.1 Influence of energy efficiency measures
204(4)
7.3.4.2 Influence of EE measures
208(1)
7.3.4.3 Influence of size
209(1)
7.3.4.4 On-site PV systems implementation
209(1)
7.3.5 Concept
4. Grid-Fed Vapour-Compression Chiller with Electrical Energy and ChilledWater Storages
210(9)
7.3.5.1 Influence of EE measures
210(4)
7.3.5.2 Influence of size
214(1)
7.3.5.3 Influence of the size of TES
215(4)
7.3.6 Concept
5. Biogas Fuel Cell with Absorption Chiller
219(6)
7.3.6.1 Influence of EE measures
219(4)
7.3.6.2 Influence of size
223(1)
7.3.6.3 Influence of absorption chiller sizes and potential heat reuse
224(1)
7.3.7 Concept
6. Reciprocating Engine CHP with Absorption Chiller
225(5)
7.3.7.1 Influence of EE measures
225(4)
7.3.7.2 Influence of size
229(1)
7.3.7.3 Influence of absorption chiller sizes and potential heat reuse
230(1)
7.4 Other Aspects Influencing Data Centre Energy Consumption
230(7)
7.4.1 Influence of the IT Load Profile
230(7)
7.4.1.1 Influence of the rack density, occupancy, and oversizing factors
233(4)
7.5 The RenewIT Tool
237(1)
7.6 Conclusion
238(2)
References
240(1)
Annexes 241(52)
Index 293(2)
About the Editors 295
Jaume Salom, Thorsten Urbaneck, Eduard Oró
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