Preface |
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xi | |
Acknowledgments |
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xvi | |
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1 | (54) |
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1 Atmospheric Observations and Models |
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3 | (30) |
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1.1 The Global Observing System |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (1) |
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1.3 Measurements of Chemical Tracers |
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6 | (1) |
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1.4 The Observed General Circulation |
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7 | (23) |
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1.4.1 The Time-Averaged General Circulation |
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8 | (9) |
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1.4.2 The Zonally Averaged General Circulation |
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17 | (9) |
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1.4.3 Eddies and Transients |
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26 | (4) |
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1.5 Numerical Simulation of the Atmospheric Circulation |
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30 | (3) |
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1.5.1 Filtering of the Navier-Stokes Equations |
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30 | (1) |
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1.5.2 The Types of Models |
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31 | (1) |
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1.5.3 General Circulation Models |
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32 | (1) |
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2 Heuristic Models of the General Circulation |
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33 | (22) |
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2.1 Radiative-Convective Equilibrium |
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33 | (1) |
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2.2 The Cycling of Mechanical Energy |
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34 | (1) |
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2.3 Steady Motions Driven by Heating Gradients |
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35 | (2) |
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2.4 Tropic World: Convection on a Planetary Scale |
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37 | (2) |
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2.5 The General Circulation as a Heat Engine |
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39 | (2) |
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2.6 The Influence of Planetary Rotation |
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41 | (5) |
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2.6.1 A "Spin Up" Experiment |
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41 | (2) |
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2.6.2 Varying the Rotation Rate Ω |
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43 | (3) |
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2.7 Influence of Orbital Geometry |
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46 | (1) |
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2.8 The Long Arm of Frictional Drag |
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47 | (1) |
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2.9 Gravity Waves, the Hidden Messengers |
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48 | (2) |
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50 | (5) |
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2.10.1 Thermodynamic Insights |
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50 | (1) |
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2.10.2 Dynamical Insights |
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51 | (4) |
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Part II Balance Requirements for the General Circulation |
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55 | (64) |
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3 The Angular Momentum Balance |
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57 | (15) |
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3.1 Angular Momentum Conservation for the "Earth System" as a Whole |
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57 | (5) |
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3.1.1 Temporal Variations in Atmospheric Angular Momentum |
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60 | (2) |
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3.2 Poleward Transport of Atmospheric Angular Momentum |
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62 | (4) |
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3.3 The Vertical Transport of Angular Momentum |
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66 | (2) |
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3.4 The Local, Zonally Averaged Zonal Momentum Balance |
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68 | (3) |
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71 | (1) |
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4 Mass Balance of Atmospheric Trace Constituents |
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72 | (13) |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (9) |
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4.2.1 Mean Distribution of Water Vapor, Sources, and Sinks |
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75 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Water Vapor Transport |
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76 | (3) |
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4.2.3 The Land Branch of the Hydrologic Cycle |
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79 | (2) |
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4.2.4 Water Vapor Transport and Ocean Surface Salinity |
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81 | (2) |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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5 The Balance of Total Energy |
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85 | (21) |
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5.1 The Globally Averaged Energy Balance |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (2) |
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5.3 Maintenance of the Observed Stable Stratification |
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89 | (1) |
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5.4 Balance Requirements and Energy Transport in the Earth System |
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89 | (8) |
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5.4.1 Partitioning of the Poleward Transports between Atmosphere and Ocean |
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91 | (1) |
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5.4.2 The Poleward Transport of Atmospheric Moist Static Energy |
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92 | (5) |
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5.5 The Zonally Averaged Heat Balance |
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97 | (3) |
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5.6 Dynamical Interpretation of the Eddy Heat Transport |
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100 | (3) |
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5.7 Eulerian versus Lagrangian Mean Meridional Circulations |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (2) |
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6 The Mechanical Energy Cycle |
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106 | (13) |
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6.1 Quantification of Available Potential Energy |
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106 | (2) |
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6.1.1 A Simplified Expression for Available Potential Energy |
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107 | (1) |
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6.2 Sources and Sinks of Available Potential Energy |
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108 | (1) |
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6.3 Conversion from Available Potential to Kinetic Energy |
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108 | (2) |
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6.4 The Observed Mechanical Energy Cycle |
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110 | (1) |
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6.5 The Local Mechanical Energy Cycle |
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111 | (2) |
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6.6 Eddy Transports of Geopotential |
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113 | (1) |
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6.7 Partitioning of the Mechanical Energy |
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114 | (2) |
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6.8 The Mechanical Energy Spectrum |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (2) |
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Part III Dynamics of the Zonal Mean Flow |
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119 | (36) |
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7 Dynamics of the Zonal Mean Flow |
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121 | (12) |
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7.1 An Example; The Annual Cycle of the Mesospheric Circulation |
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121 | (1) |
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7.2 The Governing Equations |
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122 | (1) |
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7.3 A Vectorial Representation of the Governing Equations |
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123 | (3) |
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7.4 Solution of the Governing Equations |
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126 | (2) |
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7.4.1 The Mean Meridional Circulation |
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126 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Evolution of Pseudo-Potential Vorticity |
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127 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Response to the Boundary Forcing |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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7.5 The Mid-Latitude Quasi-Geostrophic System |
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128 | (2) |
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7.5.1 The Diagnostic Equation for Vertical Velocity |
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129 | (1) |
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7.5.2 The Geopotential Tendency Equation |
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129 | (1) |
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7.6 The Zonally Symmetric Flow in the Absence of Eddy Forcing |
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130 | (1) |
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7.6.1 The Solstitial Circulation |
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131 | (1) |
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131 | (2) |
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8 Wave-Mean Flow Interaction |
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133 | (22) |
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8.1 Introduction to Wave--Mean Flow Interaction |
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133 | (8) |
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8.1.1 The Partitioned Mechanical Energy Cycle |
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134 | (3) |
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8.1.2 Baroclinic Wave Life Cycles |
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137 | (3) |
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8.1.3 The Mechanical Energy Cycle in the Winter Stratosphere |
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140 | (1) |
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8.2 The Transformed Eulerian Mean Formalism |
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141 | (6) |
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8.2.1 Further Interpretation |
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142 | (1) |
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8.2.2 The TEM Version of the Baroclinic Wave Life Cycle |
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143 | (1) |
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8.2.3 TEM Circulation and the Climatological Mean Eddy Forcing |
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144 | (3) |
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8.3 The Balance Requirements Revisited |
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147 | (3) |
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8.3.1 The Eddy Heat Transport |
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147 | (1) |
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8.3.2 The Momentum Balance |
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147 | (1) |
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8.3.3 The Potential Vorticity Transport |
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148 | (1) |
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8.3.4 The Climatological Mean Meridional Circulation |
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148 | (1) |
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8.3.5 Toward a More Holistic Treatment |
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148 | (2) |
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8.4 The Barotropic Annular Modes |
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150 | (3) |
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8.5 The Baroclinic Annular Modes |
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153 | (2) |
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Part IV The Stratospheric General Circulation |
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155 | (36) |
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9 The Global Stratospheric Circulation |
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157 | (15) |
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9.1 Ozone and Other Stratospheric Tracers |
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157 | (2) |
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9.2 Stratosphere--Troposphere Exchange Processes |
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159 | (3) |
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9.2.1 Entry of Tropospheric Air into the Stratosphere |
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159 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Transport of Tracers within the Stratosphere |
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160 | (2) |
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9.2.3 Intrusions of Stratospheric Air into the Troposphere |
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162 | (1) |
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9.3 The Stratospheric Circulation |
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162 | (5) |
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9.3.1 The Seasonally Varying TEM Circulation |
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162 | (2) |
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9.3.2 The Breaking of Planetary-Scale Rossby Waves |
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164 | (1) |
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9.3.3 The Cross-Equatorial Mass Flux in the BDC |
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165 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Northern versus Southern Hemisphere Asymmetries |
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166 | (1) |
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9.3.5 The Annual Cycle in the Strength of the Shallow Branch of the BDC |
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166 | (1) |
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9.3.6 Compensating Tropical and Extratropical Temperature Perturbations |
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167 | (1) |
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167 | (5) |
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9.4.1 The Role of Wave Driving |
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169 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Climatology and Timing |
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170 | (2) |
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10 Wave--Mean Flow Interaction in the Tropical Stratosphere |
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172 | (19) |
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10.1 The Zonal Wind Climatology |
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172 | (3) |
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10.2 Equatorially Trapped Planetary Waves |
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175 | (9) |
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10.2.1 The Shallow Water Wave Equations |
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177 | (1) |
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10.2.2 The Shallow Water Wave Solutions |
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177 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Vertical Structure |
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178 | (1) |
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10.2.4 Wavenumber-Frequency Spectra |
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178 | (1) |
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10.2.5 Kelvin and Mixed Rossby-Gravity Waves |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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10.2.7 Gravity Waves and Inertio-Gravity Waves |
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181 | (3) |
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10.3 The Generalized of the Eliassen--Palm Flux |
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184 | (1) |
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10.4 Wave--Mean Flow Interaction in the QBO |
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185 | (3) |
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10.5 Influence of the QBO on the Wintertime Polar Vortex |
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188 | (3) |
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Part V The Zonally Varying Extratropical Tropospheric Circulation |
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191 | (66) |
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11 The Northern Hemisphere Winter Zonally Varying Climatology |
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193 | (21) |
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11.1 Observed and Simulated Structure in DJF |
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194 | (5) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (4) |
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11.2.1 Impact on the Zonally Symmetric Flow |
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199 | (2) |
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11.2.2 Impact on the Stationary Waves |
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201 | (1) |
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11.2.3 Insights Derived from Experiments with a 2D Model |
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202 | (1) |
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203 | (2) |
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11.3.1 The Observed Heating and its Relation to the Storm Tracks |
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203 | (2) |
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11.3.2 Impact on the Stationary Waves |
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205 | (1) |
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11.4 Forcing by the Transients |
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205 | (6) |
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11.5 Response to the Combined Forcing |
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211 | (2) |
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213 | (1) |
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12 The High Frequency Extratropical Transients |
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214 | (15) |
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12.1 Frequency Dependence and Anisotropy: Observational Evidence |
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214 | (2) |
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12.2 Phase Velocity Versus Group Velocity: Theory |
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216 | (3) |
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12.3 The Horizontal Velocity Covariance Tensor |
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219 | (1) |
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12.4 The Extended Eliassen--Palm Flux |
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220 | (3) |
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12.4.1 The Barotropic Component |
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221 | (2) |
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12.4.2 The Baroclinic Component |
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223 | (1) |
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12.5 Phase Velocity Versus Group Velocity: Observations |
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223 | (4) |
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12.5.1 Phase Velocity Versus Group Velocity |
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224 | (2) |
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12.5.2 Orographic Influences on Wave Propagation |
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226 | (1) |
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12.6 Characteristics of Baroclinic Waves |
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227 | (2) |
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13 The Low Frequency Extratropical Transients |
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229 | (28) |
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13.1 Rossby Wave Dispersion |
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229 | (18) |
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13.1.1 Dispersion Along Westerly Waveguides |
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230 | (4) |
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13.1.2 Dispersion away from Westerly Waveguides |
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234 | (10) |
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13.1.3 Retrograding Planetary-Scale Rossby Waves |
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244 | (3) |
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247 | (3) |
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13.3 Favored Flow Configurations |
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250 | (3) |
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13.4 Externally Forced Low Frequency Variability |
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253 | (4) |
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Part VI The Tropical General Circulation |
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257 | (126) |
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14 The Annual Mean Circulation of the Tropics |
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259 | (13) |
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14.1 Rain Rate, Vertical Velocity, and Low Clouds |
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259 | (2) |
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14.2 The Upper Tropospheric Circulation |
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261 | (2) |
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14.3 The Lower Tropospheric Circulation |
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263 | (2) |
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14.4 The ITCZ/Cold Tongue Complexes |
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265 | (2) |
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14.5 The Equatorial Stationary Waves |
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267 | (2) |
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14.6 What Determines the Annual Mean Rain Rate Climatology? |
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269 | (3) |
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272 | (9) |
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15.1 The Local, Vertically Averaged Energy Balance |
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272 | (2) |
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15.2 Maintenance of WTG Balance |
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274 | (2) |
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15.3 Convectively Coupled Waves |
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276 | (4) |
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15.4 Self-Aggregation of Tropical Convection |
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280 | (1) |
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16 The Seasons in the Tropics |
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281 | (13) |
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16.1 DJF Versus JJA Circulations |
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281 | (6) |
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16.1.1 The Zonally Varying Flow |
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281 | (3) |
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16.1.2 The Zonally Symmetric Flow |
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284 | (3) |
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16.2 SON Versus MAM Circulations |
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287 | (2) |
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16.3 Why is the ITCZ in the Northern Hemisphere? |
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289 | (1) |
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16.4 The Equatorial Semiannual Cycle |
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290 | (1) |
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16.5 Abrupt Seasonal Transitions |
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291 | (3) |
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17 El Nino--Southern Oscillation |
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294 | (17) |
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295 | (4) |
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17.1.1 Atmosphere--Ocean Coupling: The Bjerknes Feedback |
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296 | (1) |
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17.1.2 Delayed Ocean Feedbacks |
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296 | (1) |
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17.1.3 Irregularity and Nonlinearity of ENSO |
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297 | (2) |
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299 | (6) |
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17.3 The Zonally Symmetric Component |
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305 | (2) |
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17.4 Atmospheric Teleconnections |
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307 | (4) |
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18 Intraseasonal Variability of the Tropical General Circulation |
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311 | (19) |
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18.1 Evidence for the Existence of the MJO |
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311 | (3) |
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18.2 MJO-Related Wind, Temperature, and Geopotential Height Fields |
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314 | (3) |
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18.3 The MJO-Related Moisture Budget |
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317 | (4) |
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18.4 MJO-Related Perturbations near the Tropopause |
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321 | (2) |
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18.5 Zonally Symmetric MJO-Related Perturbations |
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323 | (1) |
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18.6 MJO Teleconnections to Higher Latitudes |
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323 | (3) |
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18.7 Seasonality of the MJO |
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326 | (1) |
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18.8 Other Patterns of Intraseasonal Variability in JJA |
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327 | (1) |
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18.9 Equatorially Trapped Rossby Waves |
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328 | (2) |
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19 Day-to-Day Variability of the Tropical Circulation |
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330 | (14) |
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19.1 Equatorially Trapped Waves |
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330 | (8) |
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331 | (2) |
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19.1.2 Mixed Rossby--Gravity Waves |
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333 | (2) |
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19.1.3 Inertio-Gravity Waves |
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335 | (1) |
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19.1.4 Evolution of the Convection in Equatorially Trapped Waves |
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336 | (2) |
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19.2 Off-Equatorial Waves |
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338 | (3) |
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338 | (2) |
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19.2.2 Submonthly (12--20 day) Monsoon Gyres |
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340 | (1) |
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19.3 Extratropical Influences |
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341 | (3) |
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20 Warm Core Tropical Vortices |
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344 | (9) |
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20.1 Formation and Development Mechanisms |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (3) |
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20.3 Further Interpretation |
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348 | (2) |
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20.3.1 Dynamical Considerations |
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348 | (1) |
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20.3.2 Thermodynamic Considerations |
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349 | (1) |
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20.4 Tropical Cyclone Genesis Regions and Tracks |
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350 | (1) |
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20.5 Modulation of Tropical Cyclone Activity |
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350 | (3) |
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350 | (1) |
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20.5.2 Influence of the MJO |
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351 | (1) |
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20.5.3 Influence of El Nino and La Nina |
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352 | (1) |
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21 Diurnal and Higher Frequency Variability of the Global Circulation |
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353 | (30) |
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353 | (2) |
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355 | (2) |
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357 | (2) |
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21.4 Gravity Waves: An Overview |
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359 | (2) |
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21.5 Gravity Waves in the Global Mechanical Energy Spectrum |
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361 | (1) |
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Appendix A Space and Time Averaging Operations |
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362 | (1) |
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A.1 Time and Zonal Averaging |
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362 | (2) |
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362 | (1) |
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A.1.2 Decomposition of Product Terms |
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362 | (1) |
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A.1.3 Statistical Interpretation |
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363 | (1) |
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A.1.4 Physical Interpretation |
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363 | (1) |
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364 | (1) |
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364 | (1) |
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Appendix B The Zonal Momentum Balance |
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365 | (1) |
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Appendix C Methods of Identifying Teleconnection Patterns |
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366 | (1) |
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C.1 The Correlation (or Covariance) Matrix |
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366 | (1) |
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C.2 Interpretation of One-Point Correlation and Regression Maps |
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366 | (1) |
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C.3 Empirical Orthogonal Teleconnection Patterns |
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366 | (1) |
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C.4 Empirical Orthogonal Function Analysis |
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367 | (1) |
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C.5 Extended Empirical Orthogonal Function Analysis |
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367 | (1) |
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C.6 Rotated Empirical Orthogonal Function Analysis |
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367 | (1) |
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C.7 Maximal Covariance Analysis (MCA) |
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368 | (1) |
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Appendix D Scaling and Application of the Weak Temperature Gradient Approximation |
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369 | (1) |
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D.1 The Weak Temperature Gradient Approximation |
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369 | (1) |
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D.2 Scale Analysis of the Basic Equations near the Equator |
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369 | (1) |
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D.3 Scale Analysis of the Basic Equations away from the Equator |
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370 | (1) |
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D.4 Derivation of the WTG Moisture Equation |
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371 | (1) |
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Appendix E Math Symbols and Abbreviations |
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372 | (1) |
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E.1 Math Symbols and Notation |
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372 | (3) |
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375 | (3) |
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Appendix F Extended Figure Captions |
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378 | (5) |
Bibliography |
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383 | (12) |
Index |
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395 | |