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3 | (6) |
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7 | (2) |
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9 | (20) |
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9 | (9) |
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2.1.1 Theory of Field Ionisation |
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10 | (1) |
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2.1.2 "Seeing" Atoms: Field Ion Microscopy |
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11 | (5) |
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2.1.3 Spatial Resolution of FIM |
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16 | (2) |
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2.2 Instrumentation and Techniques for FIM |
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18 | (3) |
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2.2.1 FIM Instrumentation |
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18 | (1) |
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2.2.2 eFIM or Digital FIM |
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19 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Tomographic FIM Techniques |
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20 | (1) |
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2.3 Interpretation of FIM Images |
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21 | (8) |
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2.3.1 Interpretation of the Image in a Pure Material |
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21 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Interpretation of the Image for Alloys |
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22 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Selected Applications of the FIM |
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23 | (4) |
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27 | (1) |
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27 | (2) |
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3 From Field Desorption Microscopy to Atom Probe Tomography |
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29 | (42) |
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29 | (14) |
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3.1.1 Theory of Field Evaporation |
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29 | (10) |
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3.1.2 "Analysing" Atoms one-by-one: Atom Probe Tomography |
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39 | (4) |
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3.2 Instrumentation and Techniques for APT |
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43 | (28) |
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43 | (4) |
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3.2.2 Field Desorption Microscopy |
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47 | (3) |
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3.2.3 HV-Pulsing Techniques |
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50 | (2) |
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3.2.4 Laser-Pulsing Techniques |
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52 | (10) |
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3.2.5 Energy-Compensation Techniques |
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62 | (2) |
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64 | (7) |
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Part II Practical Aspects |
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71 | (40) |
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71 | (3) |
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4.1.1 Sampling Issues in Microscopy for Materials Science and Engineering |
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72 | (1) |
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4.1.2 Specimen Requirements |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (7) |
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4.2.1 The Electropolishing Process |
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74 | (5) |
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79 | (1) |
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4.2.3 Safety Considerations |
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79 | (2) |
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4.2.4 Advantages and Limitations |
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81 | (1) |
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4.3 Broad Ion-Beam Techniques |
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81 | (1) |
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4.4 Focused Ion-Beam Techniques |
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82 | (19) |
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83 | (5) |
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88 | (8) |
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4.4.3 The Final Stages of FIB Preparation |
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96 | (1) |
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4.4.4 Understanding and Minimising Ion-Beam Damage and Other Artefacts |
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96 | (5) |
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4.5 Deposition Methods for Preparing Coatings and Films |
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101 | (1) |
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4.6 Methods for Preparing Organic Materials |
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101 | (3) |
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101 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Self-assembled Monolayers |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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4.7.2 Direct Growth of Suitable Structures |
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104 | (1) |
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4.8 Issues Associated with Specimen Geometry |
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104 | (2) |
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4.8.1 Influence of Specimen Geometry on Data Quality |
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104 | (2) |
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4.9 A Guide to Selecting an Optimal Method for Specimen Preparation |
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106 | (5) |
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107 | (4) |
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5 Experimental Protocols in Field Ion Microscopy |
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111 | (10) |
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5.1 Step-by-Step Procedures for FIM |
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111 | (3) |
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5.2 Operational Space of the Field Ion Microscope |
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114 | (5) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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5.2.3 The "Best Image Field" |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (2) |
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119 | (2) |
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119 | (2) |
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6 Experimental Protocols in Atom Probe Tomography |
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121 | (36) |
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121 | (2) |
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6.2 Aspects of Mass Spectrometry |
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123 | (13) |
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6.2.1 Detection of the Ions |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Formation of the Mass Spectrum |
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125 | (2) |
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127 | (2) |
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129 | (3) |
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6.2.6 Elemental Identification |
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132 | (3) |
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6.2.7 Measurement of the Composition |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (6) |
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137 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Pulse Fraction and Base Temperature |
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137 | (2) |
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6.3.3 Selecting the Pulsing Mode |
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139 | (1) |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (2) |
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6.5 Assessment of Data Quality |
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144 | (7) |
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6.5.1 Field Desorption map |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (4) |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (6) |
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153 | (4) |
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7 Tomographic Reconstruction |
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157 | (56) |
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7.1 Projection of the Ions |
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157 | (8) |
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7.1.1 Estimation of the Electric Field |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (2) |
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7.1.4 Point-Projection Model |
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162 | (1) |
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7.1.5 Radial Projection with Angular Compression |
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163 | (1) |
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7.1.6 Which Is the Best Model of Ion Trajectories? |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (9) |
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7.2.1 Fundamentals of the Reconstruction Protocol |
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166 | (3) |
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7.2.2 Bas et al. Protocol |
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169 | (2) |
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7.2.3 Geiser et al. Protocol |
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171 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Gault et al. Protocol |
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172 | (1) |
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7.2.5 Reflectron-Fitted Instruments |
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172 | (1) |
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7.2.6 Summary and Discussion |
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173 | (1) |
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7.3 Calibration of the Reconstruction |
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174 | (11) |
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7.3.1 Techniques for Calibrating the Reconstruction Parameters |
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174 | (5) |
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7.3.2 Importance of Calibrating the Reconstruction |
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179 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Limitations of the Current Procedures |
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181 | (4) |
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7.4 Common Artefacts and Potential Corrections |
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185 | (9) |
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7.4.1 Trajectory Aberrations and Local Magnification Effects |
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185 | (3) |
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188 | (2) |
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7.4.3 Chromatic Aberrations |
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190 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Impact of These Artefact on Atom Probe Data |
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190 | (1) |
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7.4.5 Correction of the Reconstruction |
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190 | (4) |
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7.5 Perspectives on the Reconstruction in Atom Probe Tomography |
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194 | (4) |
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7.5.1 Advancing the Reconstruction by Correlative Microscopy |
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195 | (2) |
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7.5.2 Improving Reconstructions with Simulations |
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197 | (1) |
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7.5.3 Alternative Ways to Reconstruct Atom Probe Data |
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197 | (1) |
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7.6 Spatial Resolution in APT |
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198 | (6) |
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198 | (1) |
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7.6.2 Means of Investigation |
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198 | (1) |
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7.6.3 Definition of the Spatial Resolution |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (2) |
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201 | (1) |
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7.6.6 Optimisation of the Spatial Resolution |
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202 | (2) |
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7.7 Lattice Rectification |
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204 | (9) |
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205 | (8) |
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Part III Applying Atom Probe Techniques for Materials Science |
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8 Analysis Techniques for Atom Probe Tomography |
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213 | (86) |
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8.1 Characterising the Mass Spectrum |
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213 | (12) |
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214 | (5) |
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8.1.2 Quantifying Peak Contributions from Isotopic Natural Abundances |
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219 | (2) |
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8.1.3 Spatially Dependent Identification of Mass Peaks |
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221 | (1) |
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8.1.4 Analyses of Multi-hit Detector Events |
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222 | (3) |
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8.2 Characterising the Chemical Distribution |
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225 | (5) |
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8.2.1 Quality of Atom Probe Data |
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226 | (2) |
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228 | (2) |
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8.3 Grid-Based Counting Statistics |
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230 | (23) |
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230 | (2) |
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232 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Concentration Analyses |
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232 | (1) |
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8.3.4 Smoothing by Delocalisation |
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233 | (1) |
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8.3.5 Visualisation Techniques Based on Isoconcentration and Isodensity |
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233 | (2) |
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8.3.6 One-Dimensional Profiles |
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235 | (7) |
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8.3.7 Grid-Based Frequency Distribution Analyses |
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242 | (11) |
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8.4 Techniques for Describing Atomic Architecture |
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253 | (27) |
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8.4.1 Nearest Neighbour Distributions |
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253 | (7) |
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8.4.2 Cluster Identification Algorithms |
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260 | (14) |
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8.4.3 Influence of Detection Efficiency on Nanostructural Analyses |
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274 | (6) |
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280 | (6) |
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8.5.1 Radial-Distribution and Pair Correlation Functions |
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280 | (4) |
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8.5.2 Solute Short-Range Order Parameters |
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284 | (2) |
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286 | (13) |
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8.6.1 Fourier Transforms for APT |
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287 | (1) |
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8.6.2 Spatial Distribution Maps |
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288 | (4) |
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292 | (2) |
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294 | (5) |
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9 Atom Probe Microscopy and Materials Science |
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299 | (14) |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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9.3 Solute-Atom Clustering and Short Range Order |
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302 | (1) |
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9.4 Precipitation Reactions |
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303 | (1) |
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304 | (1) |
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9.6 Spinodal Decomposition |
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304 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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306 | (1) |
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9.9 Atom Probe Crystallography |
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306 | (7) |
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309 | (4) |
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313 | (74) |
|
A Appendix: Χ2 Distribution |
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|
313 | (6) |
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318 | (1) |
|
B Appendix: Polishing Chemicals and Conditions |
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319 | (3) |
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321 | (1) |
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C Appendix: File Formats Used in APT |
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322 | (8) |
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322 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (2) |
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328 | (1) |
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Cameca Root Files: RRAW, RHIT, ROOT |
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328 | (2) |
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D Appendix: Image Hump Model Predictions |
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330 | (2) |
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E Appendix: Essential Crystallography for APT |
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332 | (6) |
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332 | (1) |
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332 | (1) |
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Structure Factor (F) Rules for bcc, fcc, hcp |
|
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332 | (1) |
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Interplanar Spacings (dhkl) |
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333 | (2) |
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335 | (3) |
|
F Appendix: Stereographic Projections and Commonly Observed Desorption Maps |
|
|
338 | (14) |
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Stereographic Projection for the Most Commonly Found Structures and Orientations |
|
|
339 | (12) |
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351 | (1) |
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G Appendix: Periodic Tables |
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|
352 | (4) |
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H Appendix: Kingham CURVES |
|
|
356 | (7) |
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|
356 | (7) |
|
I Appendix: List of Elements and Associated Mass to Charge Ratios |
|
|
363 | (7) |
|
J Appendix: Possible Element Identity of Peaks as a Function of their Location in the Mass Spectrum |
|
|
370 | (17) |
Index |
|
387 | |