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El. knyga: Biomass, Biopolymer-Based Materials, and Bioenergy: Construction, Biomedical, and other Industrial Applications

Edited by (University of Perugia, Department of Civil Engineering, UdR INSTM, Italy), Edited by (Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engine), Edited by (Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India), Edited by
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Biomass, Biopolymer-Based Materials and Bioenergy: Construction, Biomedical and other Industrial Applications covers a broad range of material types, including natural fiber reinforced polymer composites, particulate composites, fiberboard, wood fiber composites, and plywood composite that utilize natural, renewable and biodegradable agricultural biomass. In terms of bioenergy, the authors explore not only the well-known processing methods of biofuels, but also the kinetics of biofuels production pathways, a techno-economic analysis on biomass gasification, and biomass gasification with further upgrading into diesel additives and hybrid renewable energy systems for power generation.

Further chapters discuss advanced techniques for the development of biomass-based composites, biopolymer-based composites, biomass gasification, thermal kinetic design and techno-economic analysis of biomass gasification. By introducing these topics, the book highlights a totally new research theme in biopolymer-based composite materials and bioenergy.

  • Covers a broad range of different research fields, including biopolymer and natural fiber reinforcement used in the development of composites
  • Demonstrates key research themes in materials science and engineering, including materials processing, polymer science, biofuel processing, and thermal and kinetic studies
  • Presents valuable information for those working in research and development departments, and for graduate students (Masters and PhDs)
List of contributors xvii
Biographies xxi
Preface xxiii
Part I Biopolymers and Biomass-Reinforced Green Composites 1(238)
1 Biopolymer processing and its composites: an introduction
3(22)
Deepak Verma
Elena Fortunati
1.1 Introduction
3(1)
1.2 Biodegradable/bio-based polymers as matrices for biocomposite applications
4(3)
1.2.1 Degradable thermoplastic matrix: a brief study
5(2)
1.3 Processing of thermoplastic composites
7(1)
1.3.1 Traditional polymer processing methods
7(1)
1.4 Mechanical properties
8(7)
1.5 Morphological analysis
15(6)
1.6 Conclusion
21(1)
References
21(4)
2 Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites: a comprehensive study on machining characteristics of hemp fiber-reinforced composites
25(26)
Piyush Gohil
Kundan Patel
Vijaykumar Chaudhary
2.1 Introduction
25(1)
2.2 Literature survey
26(2)
2.3 Specimen preparation method
28(1)
2.4 Mechanical characterization
29(1)
2.5 Experimental design for drilling
29(1)
2.6 Delamination determination method
29(3)
2.7 Results and discussion
32(10)
2.7.1 Effect of process parameters on TF
32(2)
2.7.2 Effect of process parameters on torque
34(3)
2.7.3 Effect of process parameters on DF at entry
37(3)
2.7.4 Effect of process parameters on DF at exit
40(2)
2.8 Regression analysis
42(1)
2.9 Gray relational analysis
42(6)
2.10 Conclusions
48(1)
Acknowledgments
48(1)
References
48(3)
3 Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites: application in marine environments
51(24)
Deepak Verma
Kheng Lim Goh
3.1 Introduction
51(1)
3.2 Effect of seawater on polymer matrix composites
52(3)
3.3 Effect of moisture on the properties of marine composites
55(4)
3.3.1 Fickian diffusion behavior
55(1)
3.3.2 Non-Fickian or anomalous diffusion behavior
56(1)
3.3.3 Moisture diffusion measurements
57(2)
3.4 NDT of marine composites: a brief overview
59(4)
3.4.1 Vibration analysis
60(1)
3.4.2 Mechanical impedance analysis
60(1)
3.4.3 Conventional ultrasonics
60(1)
3.4.4 Advanced ultrasonics
60(3)
3.5 Mechanical properties of polymer marine biocomposites: a past study
63(7)
3.6 Advantages and disadvantages of marine composites
70(1)
3.7 Conclusion
70(1)
References
71(2)
Further Reading
73(2)
4 Characteristics of Johorean Elaeis guineensis oil palm kernel shells: elasticity, thermal stability, and biochemical composition
75(12)
Min Hong Ng
Deepak Verma
Thomas Sabu
Kheng Lim Goh
4.1 Introduction
75(2)
4.2 Possible dependence of OPS hardness on the yield of the oil palm tree
77(1)
4.3 Compactness of the cellulose within the shell influences the OPS hardness
78(2)
4.4 Biochemical composition
80(2)
4.5 Thermal stability
82(2)
4.6 Conclusions
84(1)
Acknowledgments
84(1)
References
85(2)
5 Lignocellulosic materials as reinforcements in sustainable packaging systems: processing, properties, and applications
87(16)
Elena Fortunati
Jose M. Kenny
Luigi Torre
5.1 Introduction
87(2)
5.2 Lignocellulosic materials
89(3)
5.2.1 Plant-based materials
90(1)
5.2.2 Bacterial cellulose
91(1)
5.3 Lignocellulosic-based composites and nanocomposites
92(6)
5.3.1 Processing of cellulose-based composites and nanocomposites
92(2)
5.3.2 Properties of cellulose-based composites and nanocomposites and their application in the food packaging sector
94(4)
5.4 Concluding remarks
98(1)
Conflict of Interest
99(1)
Acknowledgment
99(1)
References
99(4)
6 Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites: feasibiliy study for sustainable automotive industries
103(20)
Deepak Verma
Irem Senal
6.1 Introduction
103(2)
6.1.1 Advantages of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites
104(1)
6.1.2 Disadvantages of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites
104(1)
6.1.3 Applications of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites
104(1)
6.2 General characteristics of natural fibers
105(1)
6.2.1 Mechanical properties
105(1)
6.2.2 Water absorption of natural fibers
105(1)
6.2.3 Flame-retardant properties of natural fibers
106(1)
6.3 Classification of natural fibers
106(1)
6.4 The use of natural fiber-reinforced composites in automobile industries
107(2)
6.4.1 Utilization in the development of interior components
107(2)
6.4.2 Utilization in the development of exterior components
109(1)
6.4.3 Crashworthiness of natural fiber-reinforced composites
109(1)
6.5 The use of natural fibers in the automotive industry: a brief past history
109(2)
6.6 Mechanical properties of natural fiber composites in automobile industries
111(9)
6.7 Conclusions
120(1)
References
120(2)
Further Reading
122(1)
7 Synthesis and characterization of biopolymer-based mixed matrix membranes
123(12)
Mustafa Abu Ghalia
Amira Abdelrasoul
Abbreviations
123(1)
7.1 Introduction
123(1)
7.2 Fabrication of MMMs
124(3)
7.2.1 Particle dispersion
125(1)
7.2.2 Interfacial morphology
126(1)
7.3 Synthesis of biopolymer-based MMMs
127(1)
7.4 Characterization of biopolymer-based MMMs
128(3)
7.4.1 Recent development of biopolymer-based MMMs
130(1)
7.5 Application of biopolymer-based MMMs
131(1)
7.6 Conclusion
132(1)
Acknowledgments
132(1)
References
132(3)
8 Sustainable, nanostructured, and bio-based polyurethanes for energy-efficient sandwich structures applied to the construction industry
135(26)
L.M. Chiacchiarelli
8.1 Introduction
135(2)
8.2 Rigid polyurethane foams
137(6)
8.2.1 Isocyanates (component A)
139(1)
8.2.2 Polyols (component B)
140(1)
8.2.3 Blowing agents (component B)
141(1)
8.2.4 Miscellaneous additives (component B)
142(1)
8.3 rPUF sandwich panels applied in the construction industry
143(2)
8.4 Bio-based rigid PUFs
145(3)
8.4.1 Bio-based polyols
145(2)
8.4.2 Bio-based isocyanates
147(1)
8.5 Nanostructured rigid PUFs
148(1)
8.6 Thermal insulation properties of rPUFs
149(4)
8.6.1 Thermal aging of rPUFs
151(1)
8.6.2 Thermal insulation performance of nanostructured rPUFs
152(1)
8.7 Conclusions
153(1)
Acknowledgments
154(1)
References
154(7)
9 Lignocellulosic materials as novel carriers, also at nanoscale, of organic active principles for agri-food applications
161(18)
Elena Fortunati
G.M. Balestra
9.1 Introduction
161(3)
9.2 Nanotechnology: special focus on lignocellulosic materials
164(5)
9.3 Plant protection sector
169(2)
9.4 Food protection: food active packaging
171(2)
9.5 Recent contribution on plant and food protection
173(1)
9.6 Conclusions and future trends
174(1)
References
175(4)
10 Natural fiber biodegradable composites and nanocomposites: a biomedical application
179(24)
Francesca Luzi
Debora Puglia
Luigi Torre
10.1 Introduction
179(7)
10.1.1 Polysaccharides from marine sources
181(1)
10.1.2 Polysaccharides from vegetal sources
182(1)
10.1.3 Proteins
183(3)
10.2 General focus on natural fibers for biomedical applications
186(4)
10.2.1 Silkworm silk fiber
188(1)
10.2.2 Keratin fibers
189(1)
10.3 Nanotechnology and natural polymers in biomedical applications
190(5)
10.3.1 Nanosized cellulose-based material for biomedical applications
191(3)
10.3.2 Nanosized chitosan-based material for biomedical applications
194(1)
10.4 Conclusions
195(1)
References
196(7)
11 Natural fiber polymer composites: utilization in aerospace engineering
203(22)
M.R. Mansor
A.H. Nurfaizey
N. Tamaldin
M.N.A. Nordin
11.1 Introduction
203(1)
11.2 Present materials for aerospace engineering
204(5)
11.2.1 History of aerospace materials
204(2)
11.2.2 Modern aerospace materials
206(3)
11.3 Polymer composites in aerospace industry
209(3)
11.4 Recent developments in natural fiber polymer composites for aerospace applications
212(6)
11.5 Future trends and challenges in natural fiber polymer composites for aerospace applications
218(3)
11.6 Conclusion
221(1)
Acknowledgments
221(1)
References
221(4)
12 Natural fiber-reinforced composites: recent developments and prospective utilization in railway industries for sleeper manufacturing
225(14)
Carlo Santulli
12.1 Natural fiber composites
225(2)
12.2 The functions of railway sleepers and the possible role in their construction of natural fiber composites
227(4)
12.3 Applications of natural fibers and composites and other related products in the construction of railway sleepers
231(3)
12.4 Conclusions
234(2)
References
236(3)
Part II Biofuels 239(280)
13 An introduction to biofuels, foods, livestock, and the environment
241(36)
Yaser Dahman
Cherilyn Dignan
Asma Fiayaz
Ahmad Chaudhry
13.1 Introduction
241(2)
13.1.1 Biofuel impact on the future of food stocks
243(1)
13.2 Biofuels
243(7)
13.2.1 First-generation biofuels
244(1)
13.2.2 Second-generation biofuels
244(1)
13.2.3 Third-generation biofuels
244(2)
13.2.4 Biobutanol
246(1)
13.2.5 Biofuel policies and canadian government goals
247(3)
13.3 Biomass for biofuel production
250(9)
13.3.1 Pretreatment of biomass
252(6)
13.3.2 Pretreatment and hydrolysis of cellulosic feedstock
258(1)
13.3.3 Consolidation of bioprocess
258(1)
13.4 Agricultural biomass of feedstock
259(2)
13.4.1 Hemp as lignocellulosic feedstock
260(1)
13.5 Algae as biomass feedstock
261(8)
13.5.1 Microalgae versus macroalgae
262(1)
13.5.2 Microalgal physical makeup
263(1)
13.5.3 Advantages of algae
264(1)
13.5.4 Algae cultivation
265(2)
13.5.5 Algae-based bioenergy products
267(1)
13.5.6 Biorefinery of algae
268(1)
13.6 Conclusion
269(1)
References
269(8)
14 Biofuels: their characteristics and analysis
277(50)
Yaser Dahman
Kashif Syed
Sarkar Begum
Pallavi Roy
Banafsheh Mohtasebi
14.1 Introduction
277(1)
14.2 Biofuels
278(5)
14.2.1 Biofuel statistics
280(1)
14.2.2 First-generation biofuels
281(1)
14.2.3 Second-generation biofuels
281(1)
14.2.4 Third-generation biofuels
282(1)
14.3 Agricultural biomass of feedstock
283(4)
14.4 Pretreatment and hydrolysis of cellulosic feedstock
287(2)
14.5 Consolidation of bioprocess
289(1)
14.6 Acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation process
290(2)
14.7 Protoplast fusion and coculture technology
292(2)
14.8 Enzymes
294(1)
14.9 Algae as biomass feedstock
294(17)
14.9.1 Algae strains and properties
295(2)
14.9.2 Advantages of using algae
297(2)
14.9.3 Utilization of algae
299(4)
14.9.4 Cultivation systems
303(2)
14.9.5 Harvesting methods
305(2)
14.9.6 Lipid extraction
307(1)
14.9.7 Biodiesel production
308(3)
14.10 Advanced biofuels
311(3)
14.10.1 Biodiesel
311(1)
14.10.2 Bioethanol
311(1)
14.10.3 Biobutanol
312(2)
14.10.4 Acetone
314(1)
14.11 Biofuel policy
314(1)
14.12 Funding programs by agriculture and agri food Canada (CRFA 2010)
315(1)
14.13 Conclusions
315(1)
Acknowledgments
316(1)
References
316(9)
Further Reading
325(2)
15 The thermochemical conversion of biomass into biofuels
327(42)
Jiajun Zhang
Xiaolei Zhang
15.1 Biomass to biofuel
327(7)
15.1.1 Biofuel
327(4)
15.1.2 Conversion technologies for biofuel production
331(3)
15.2 Thermochemical conversion techniques for biofuel production
334(24)
15.2.1 Torrefaction and carbonization of biomass
334(7)
15.2.2 Liquefaction of biomass
341(4)
15.2.3 Pyrolysis of biomass
345(7)
15.2.4 Gasification of biomass
352(2)
15.2.5 Combustion of biomass
354(2)
15.2.6 Reactors for thermochemical conversion of biomass
356(2)
15.3 Current challenges confronted by biofuel production from biomass
358(1)
15.3.1 Feedstock challenge
358(1)
15.3.2 Technical challenge in thermochemical conversion of biomass
358(1)
15.3.3 Future perspectives of thermochemical conversion for biofuel production
359(1)
15.4 Conclusion
359(1)
References
360(9)
16 The use of crop residues for biofuel production
369(28)
Mehmood Ali
Muhammad Saleem
Zakir Khan
Ian A. Watson
16.1 Introduction
369(1)
16.2 Crop residue types and composition
370(2)
16.3 Current usage of crop residues
372(6)
16.3.1 Building materials
372(1)
16.3.2 Feed and bedding
373(1)
16.3.3 Mushroom cultivation
373(1)
16.3.4 Pulp and chemicals
373(1)
16.3.5 Recycling
373(1)
16.3.6 Protecting soils from erosion and improving water retention
374(1)
16.3.7 Enhancing soil organic matter
374(1)
16.3.8 Recycling nutrients
374(1)
16.3.9 Fuel material and its precursor
374(4)
16.4 Emissions from inefficient use of crop residues
378(1)
16.5 Proper management of crop residues
378(1)
16.6 Conversion technologies for crop residues into biofuels
379(6)
16.6.1 Combustion
381(1)
16.6.2 Gasification
381(1)
16.6.3 Pyrolysis
382(1)
16.6.4 Hydrothermal liquefaction
382(1)
16.6.5 Enzymatic hydrolysis
383(1)
16.6.6 Anaerobic digestion process
383(1)
16.6.7 Trans-esterification
384(1)
16.7 Advantages and disadvantages of crop residue feedstocks for biofuel production
385(2)
16.7.1 Biofuel benefits and risks from agricultural and food crop residues
385(2)
16.8 Scope and techno-economic analysis of crop residues to produce biofuels
387(3)
16.9 Conclusion
390(1)
References
391(6)
17 The production of biodiesel using Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) and Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Oil
397(12)
Siddharth Jain
17.1 Oil extraction
397(2)
17.1.1 Oil presses
397(1)
17.1.2 Oil expellers
397(1)
17.1.3 Traditional methods
398(1)
17.1.4 Hot oil extraction
398(1)
17.1.5 Modern concepts
399(1)
17.2 Fuel properties of SVO
399(2)
17.2.1 Limitation of SVO as a direct engine fuel
401(1)
17.3 Method for modification of SVO
401(3)
17.3.1 Blending
402(1)
17.3.2 Microemulsification
402(1)
17.3.3 Cracking
402(1)
17.3.4 Transesterification
402(2)
17.4 Biodiesel purification and characterization
404(1)
17.5 Standards for comparing biodiesel quality
404(2)
17.6 Advantages of biodiesel
406(1)
17.7 Disadvantages of biodiesel
406(1)
17.8 Comparison of emissions from biodiesel and diesel
407(1)
17.9 Conclusion
407(1)
References
408(1)
18 Production of biodiesel from rice bran oil
409(40)
Dayang Norulfairuz Abang Zaidel
Ida Idayu Muhamad
Nurul Shafinas Mohd Daud
Nor Azyati Abdul Muttalib
Nozieana Khairuddin
Nurul Asmak Md Lazim
18.1 Introduction to rice bran oil
409(1)
18.2 Application of rice bran oil
409(1)
18.3 Physical and chemical properties of rice bran oil
410(5)
18.4 Factors affecting rice bran properties
415(1)
18.5 Introduction to biofuel
416(1)
18.6 Biodiesel as an alternative to petro-diesel
417(2)
18.7 Production of biodiesel from rice bran oil
419(15)
18.7.1 Extraction of rice bran oil
420(9)
18.7.2 Degununing and dewaxing of crude rice bran oil
429(1)
18.7.3 Production of biodiesel using acid- and alkaline-catalyzed processing
429(2)
18.7.4 Production of biodiesel using lipase-catalyzed processing
431(1)
18.7.5 Production of biodiesel using the transesterification process
431(3)
18.7.6 Supercritical methanol processing
434(1)
18.8 Characterization of biodiesel from rice bran oil
434(4)
18.9 Future and challenges for biodiesel production from rice bran oil
438(4)
References
442(7)
19 Carbon and biofuel footprinting of global production of biofuels
449(34)
Deep Gupta
Sudhir Kumar Gaur
19.1 Introduction
449(6)
19.1.1 Biofuel at a glance
450(1)
19.1.2 Need for biofuel in the present scenario
451(1)
19.1.3 Current scenario for biofuel: worldwide and in India
452(3)
19.2 Projection of biofuels production
455(9)
19.2.1 Agriculture residue implications as a biofuel
456(3)
19.2.2 Climate change effect in consideration with biofuels
459(2)
19.2.3 Limiting factor assessment of sustainability for agriculture residues
461(3)
19.3 Footprint
464(7)
19.3.1 Environmental footprint
464(2)
19.3.2 Carbon footprint and its components
466(2)
19.3.3 Determination of biofuel footprint components
468(3)
19.4 Case studies
471(5)
19.4.1 Different generations of biofuels
473(1)
19.4.2 Footprint in terms of nonrenewable resources and algae-baseds biofuels
474(2)
19.5 Biofuel policies for India
476(1)
19.5.1 Trends in India
476(1)
19.6 Future aspects of biofuels
477(1)
19.7 Conclusions and recommendations
478(1)
References
479(4)
20 The consideration of economics during the processing of biofuels
483(12)
Siddharth Jain
Deepak Verma
20.1 General
483(1)
20.2 Introduction
483(6)
20.3 Biomass energy
489(3)
20.3.1 Biofuel
490(2)
20.4 Improving the economics of microalgae biodiesel
492(1)
20.5 Conclusion
492(1)
References
493(2)
21 The current and future perspectives of biofuels
495(24)
Siddharth Jain
21.1 General
495(1)
21.2 World fossil energy scenario
495(4)
21.3 Indian energy scenario
499(3)
21.3.1 Indian energy scenario with respect to liquid fuels
501(1)
21.4 Environmental concerns of conventional fuels
502(1)
21.5 Renewable energy
503(4)
21.5.1 Status of renewable energy in India
505(2)
21.5.2 Significance of renewable energy
507(1)
21.6 Biomass energy
507(4)
21.6.1 Biofuel
508(3)
21.7 Straight vegetable oil as a resource of biodiesel
511(1)
21.7.1 Nonedible oil resources
512(1)
21.8 Jatropha curcas as a substitute for petro-diesel in India
512(4)
21.8.1 Advantages of cultivation of Jatropha curcas
513(1)
21.8.2 Biodiesel versus land requirement in India
513(1)
21.8.3 Productivity of Jatropha curcas plantation
514(2)
References
516(1)
Further Reading
517(2)
Index 519
Deepak Verma is currently working as an Assistant Professor, in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, at Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India. He received his M.Tech from the College of Technology, GBPUA&T Pantnagar, India. He has more than 7 years of experience in teaching, research, and working within industry. His research interests include: Hybrid Reinforced/Filled Polymer Composites, Advance Materials: Graphene and Nanoclay, Wood fiber Reinforced/Filled Polymer Composites, Modification and Treatment of Natural Fibres and Solid Wood Composites, and Polymer blends. He has published 2 books, 16 book chapters, and more than 10 International journal papers in reputed journals. Elena Fortunati, graduated in 2007 in Materials Engineering and she was awarded a Ph.D. in Nanotechnology of Materials at the University of Perugia, in 2010. Since January 2011 she has been a researcher (post-doctoral) at the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department/Faculty of Engineering /Materials Science and Technology (STM) Group. She has attended and spoken at over 30 International Conferences and is author of more than 50 articles in refereed journals and book chapters, most of them concerning waste re-valorization and use, extraction of cellulose nanocrystals and their use in nanocomposites for industrial applications. Siddharth Jain is currently working as an Associate Professor, in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Roorkee, Roorkee, India. He received his M.Tech and PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee in the area of thermal and renewable energy. After graduation from IIT Roorkee, he worked for one year at the National University of Singapore, as a post-doctoral fellow and also worked for another year at the University

of Alberta, Canada, as a post-doctoral fellow on Renewable energy. The majority of his research has been devoted to investigate the production of power, fuel, and chemicals from renewable energy resources, mainly: kinetic, and mechanism studies on biomass thermal conversion processes and integral techno-economic and environmental assessment on renewable energy systems. Dr. Xiaolei Zhang is currently working in Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen) as assistant professor. She received her Ph.D in Water Science from INRS University of Quebec in 2014. Her research work focuses on municipal wastewater and industrial wastewater treatment; micro-electrolysis for wastewater treatment; advanced oxidation. Dr. Zhang has published more than 40 peer-reviewed journal papers, 9 book chapters, and many conference presentations.
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