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x | |
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xiv | |
Preface |
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xix | |
Abbreviations and symbolic conventions |
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xxv | |
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1 Introduction: `grammar blindness' in the recent history of English? |
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1 | (23) |
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1.1 Grammar is more than an arbitrary list of shibboleths |
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1 | (6) |
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1.2 Grammatical changes: proceeding slowly and invisible at close range? |
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7 | (9) |
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1.3 A frame of orientation: previous research on recent and ongoing grammatical changes in English |
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16 | (6) |
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22 | (2) |
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2 Comparative corpus linguistics: the methodological basis of this book |
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24 | (27) |
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2.1 (Computer) corpus linguistics: the Brown Corpus and after |
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24 | (3) |
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2.2 Comparable corpora and comparative corpus linguistics |
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27 | (4) |
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2.3 The methodological basis of comparative corpus linguistics |
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31 | (2) |
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2.4 Stages of investigation |
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33 | (4) |
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(A) Rationalize the mark-up of the corpora |
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33 | (1) |
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(B) Undertake annotation of the corpora |
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33 | (1) |
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(C) Use search and retrieval software to identify and extract recurrent formal features in the corpus |
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34 | (1) |
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(D) Refine the comparative analysis |
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34 | (1) |
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(D1) Derive difference-of-frequency tables |
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35 | (1) |
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(D2) Derive difference-of-frequency tables from inter-corpus comparisons |
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36 | (1) |
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(D3) Undertake further categorization of instances of features found in the corpora |
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36 | (1) |
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(E) Further qualitative analysis, examining individual instances, or clusters of instances, in both corpora |
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37 | (1) |
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(F) Functional interpretation of findings |
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37 | (1) |
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2.5 Further details and explanations of the stages of investigation |
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37 | (13) |
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37 | (1) |
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2.5.2 (C) Search expressions in CQP |
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38 | (2) |
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2.5.3 (D1) Frequency across genres and subcorpora |
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40 | (3) |
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2.5.4 (D2) External comparisons |
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43 | (2) |
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2.5.5 (D3) Further categorization of instances found in the corpora |
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45 | (2) |
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2.5.6 (E) Further qualitative analysis |
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47 | (2) |
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2.5.7 (F) Functional interpretation of findings on all levels |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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51 | (20) |
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51 | (1) |
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3.2 The revival of the mandative subjunctive |
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52 | (9) |
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3.2.1 Overall developments of the mandative subjunctive |
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53 | (4) |
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3.2.2 Is the mandative subjunctive losing its formal connotations? |
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57 | (4) |
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61 | (6) |
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3.3.1 The were-subjunctive: diachronic development |
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64 | (2) |
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3.3.2 The were-subjunctive: a recessive formal option? |
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66 | (1) |
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3.4 Revival and demise of the subjunctive? An attempt at reconciling apparently contradictory developments |
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67 | (2) |
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3.5 Summary and conclusion |
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69 | (2) |
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71 | (20) |
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4.1 The declining use of the modal auxiliaries in written standard English 1961--1991/2 |
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71 | (2) |
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4.2 The changing use of the modals in different genres and subcorpora |
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73 | (3) |
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4.3 The changing use of the modals in spoken vs written corpora |
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76 | (2) |
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4.4 The core modals and competing expressions of modality |
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78 | (1) |
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4.5 Shrinking usage of particular modals: a more detailed examination |
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79 | (10) |
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4.5.1 The modals at the bottom of the frequency list: shall, ought to and need (n't) |
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80 | (3) |
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4.5.2 The semantics of modal decline: may, must and should |
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83 | (6) |
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89 | (2) |
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5 The so-called semi-modals |
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91 | (27) |
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5.1 Auxiliary--lexical verb gradience |
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92 | (6) |
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5.2 Overall changes in frequency of semi-modals |
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98 | (7) |
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5.3 Further evidence for grammaticalization? Phonetics and semantics |
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105 | (9) |
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5.3.1 Phonetic reduction and coalescence: gonna, gotta and wanna |
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105 | (2) |
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5.3.2 Signs of abstraction and generalization (semantic weakening) |
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107 | (7) |
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5.4 The ecology of obligation/necessity |
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114 | (2) |
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116 | (2) |
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118 | (26) |
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118 | (1) |
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6.2 Basic and special uses of the progressive |
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119 | (1) |
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6.3 Historical background |
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120 | (2) |
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6.4 Overview of recent distribution patterns |
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122 | (5) |
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6.4.1 Distribution in written BrE and AmE |
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122 | (2) |
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6.4.2 Distribution in contemporaneous BrE speech and other registers |
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124 | (3) |
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6.5 Present progressive active |
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127 | (9) |
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6.5.1 Quotations and contracted forms |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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6.5.3 Subject type and reference |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (5) |
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6.6 The progressive passive |
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136 | (3) |
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6.7 The progressive in combination with modal auxiliaries |
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139 | (2) |
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6.7.1 Modal auxiliary + be -ing |
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139 | (1) |
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139 | (2) |
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6.8 Summary and conclusion |
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141 | (3) |
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144 | (22) |
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144 | (4) |
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148 | (6) |
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154 | (4) |
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158 | (6) |
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7.5 Summary and conclusion |
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164 | (2) |
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8 Take or have a look at a corpus? Expanded predicates in British and American English |
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166 | (15) |
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167 | (3) |
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170 | (3) |
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8.3 Defining the variable |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (5) |
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8.4.1 Stylistic variation |
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174 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Diachronic variation |
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175 | (1) |
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175 | (4) |
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179 | (2) |
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181 | (25) |
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9.1 Introduction: long-term trends in the evolution of English non-finite clauses |
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181 | (5) |
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9.2 Changes in non-finite clauses I: case studies of individual matrix verbs |
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186 | (15) |
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187 | (6) |
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9.2.2 Prevent/stop + NP + (from) + gerund |
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193 | (2) |
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9.2.3 Start and stop in catenative uses |
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195 | (4) |
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199 | (2) |
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9.2.5 Assessing the speed of changes |
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201 | (1) |
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9.3 Changes in non-finite clauses II: statistical trends in the tagged corpora |
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201 | (3) |
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204 | (2) |
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206 | (30) |
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10.1 Parts of speech: an overall survey |
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207 | (4) |
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10.2 Nouns and noun sequences |
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211 | (3) |
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212 | (1) |
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10.2.2 Proper nouns, including proper nouns as acronyms |
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212 | (2) |
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10.3 Noun sequences and other juxtapositions |
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214 | (8) |
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10.3.1 Noun + common noun sequences |
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216 | (3) |
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10.3.2 Noun sequences with plural attributive nouns |
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219 | (2) |
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10.3.3 Sequences of proper nouns |
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221 | (1) |
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10.4 The s-genitive and the of-genitive |
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222 | (4) |
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223 | (1) |
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224 | (2) |
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226 | (7) |
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10.5.1 Wh- relative clauses |
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228 | (1) |
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10.5.2 That relative clauses |
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229 | (2) |
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10.5.3 Zero relative clauses |
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231 | (1) |
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10.5.4 Pied-piping vs preposition stranding |
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231 | (2) |
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10.6 Summary and conclusion |
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233 | (3) |
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11 Linguistic and other determinants of change |
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236 | (37) |
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11.1 The functional and social processes of change |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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239 | (10) |
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11.3.1 Contracted negatives and verb forms |
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240 | (1) |
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11.3.2 Not-negation vs no-negation |
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241 | (1) |
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242 | (1) |
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11.3.4 Other plausible grammatical signs of colloquialization |
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243 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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11.3.6 Problems and issues concerning colloquialization |
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245 | (4) |
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11.4 Densification of content |
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249 | (3) |
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252 | (7) |
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11.5.1 `Americanization' in relation to other trends |
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256 | (2) |
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11.5.2 `Americanization' and sociolinguistic globalization |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (8) |
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11.6.1 Democratization: ironing out differences |
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259 | (4) |
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11.6.2 Language prescriptions |
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263 | (1) |
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264 | (3) |
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267 | (6) |
Appendix I The composition of the Brown Corpus |
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273 | (3) |
Appendix II The C8 tagset used for part-of-speech tagging of the four corpora |
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276 | (5) |
Appendix III Additional statistical tables and charts |
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281 | (33) |
References |
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314 | (21) |
Index |
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335 | |