| Periodic table of the elements |
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i | |
| Acknowledgements |
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xxi | |
| Welcome to Chemistry for the Biosciences |
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xxii | |
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1 Introduction: why biologists need chemistry |
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1 | (16) |
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1.1 The chemical basis of biology |
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1 | (2) |
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1.2 Science: exploring our world |
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3 | (1) |
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I'm a bioscientist: what has chemistry to do with me? |
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4 | (1) |
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1.3 Water: the chemical of life |
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4 | (3) |
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1.4 The essential concepts that unify chemistry and biology |
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7 | (4) |
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1.5 The language of chemistry |
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11 | (3) |
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The world of chemical nomenclature |
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11 | (1) |
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Units: making sense of numbers |
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12 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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1.6 Quantitative reasoning |
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14 | (3) |
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Maths Tool 1 How do we work with powers? |
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16 | (1) |
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2 Atoms: the foundations of life |
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17 | (35) |
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2.1 The chemical elements |
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17 | (3) |
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18 | (1) |
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What does `element' really mean? |
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18 | (2) |
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20 | (3) |
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Protons, electrons, and electrical charge |
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21 | (1) |
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How do we identify the composition of an atom? |
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21 | (2) |
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The variety of life: not so varied after all? |
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23 | (1) |
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2.3 The formation of ions: varying the number of electrons |
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23 | (4) |
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Ionization energies: how easy is it to let go? |
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25 | (2) |
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2.4 Isotopes: varying the number of neutrons |
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27 | (4) |
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How do we identify different isotopes? |
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27 | (1) |
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The relative abundances of different isotopes |
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27 | (3) |
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How do protons determine chemical identity? |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (3) |
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The Bohr model of atomic structure |
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31 | (1) |
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The quantum mechanical model of atomic structure |
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32 | (2) |
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34 | (5) |
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How much energy do different orbitals possess? |
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35 | (1) |
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How do electrons fill up orbitals? |
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35 | (1) |
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What is an atom's electronic configuration? |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (2) |
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2.7 Valence shells and valence electrons: an atom's outer limits |
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39 | (5) |
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How do we use Lewis dot symbols to represent valence shells? |
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41 | (1) |
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How do valence electrons exhibit periodicity? |
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42 | (2) |
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2.8 Electron excitation: moving between orbitals |
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44 | (8) |
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The electromagnetic spectrum |
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47 | (5) |
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3 Compounds and chemical bonding: bringing atoms together |
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52 | (43) |
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3.1 The formation of compounds |
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52 | (4) |
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The chemical bond: bridging the gap between atoms |
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53 | (1) |
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Which electron configuration is most stable? |
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53 | (3) |
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3.2 Bond formation: how are valence electrons redistributed? |
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56 | (4) |
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Electronegativity: how easily can electrons be transferred? |
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57 | (3) |
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Ionic and covalent bonding in nature: which is more prevalent? |
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60 | (1) |
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3.3 The ionic bond: transferring electrons |
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60 | (7) |
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Chemical Toolkit 1 Writing down the composition of compounds: the chemical formula |
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62 | (1) |
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The filling of shells by ionic bonding: how many electrons are transferred? |
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63 | (2) |
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The transfer of multiple electrons between atoms |
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65 | (1) |
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How are charges balanced in ionic compounds? |
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66 | (1) |
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3.4 The covalent bond: sharing electrons |
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67 | (6) |
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Chemical Toolkit 2 How to identify the components of a covalent compound: the molecular formula |
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68 | (1) |
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How are electrons distributed in covalent bonds? |
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69 | (1) |
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Non-bonding pairs of electrons |
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69 | (2) |
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Chemical Toolkit 3 Using Lewis structures to represent molecules |
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71 | (2) |
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3.5 Blurring the boundaries: polarized bonds |
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73 | (3) |
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How strongly is a bond polarized? |
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74 | (2) |
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3.6 Coordinate bonding: covalent bonding with a twist |
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76 | (1) |
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3.7 Valency: how many bonds can an atom form? |
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77 | (5) |
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The formation of multiple covalent bonds |
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79 | (1) |
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How can valency be satisfied with multiple bonds? |
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80 | (1) |
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Hypervalency: going beyond the octet rule |
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81 | (1) |
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3.8 Molecular orbitals in covalent compounds |
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82 | (4) |
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85 | (1) |
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3.9 Aromatic compounds: the world of conjugated bonds |
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86 | (4) |
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Delocalization in non-conjugated systems |
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89 | (1) |
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3.10 Polyatomic ionic compounds: bringing ionic and covalent bonds together |
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90 | (5) |
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4 Molecular interactions: holding it all together |
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95 | (38) |
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4.1 Chemical bonding versus non-covalent interactions |
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95 | (4) |
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Why are molecular interactions significant? |
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96 | (2) |
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Intramolecular versus intermolecular interactions |
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98 | (1) |
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4.2 Electrostatic forces: the foundations of molecular interactions |
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99 | (3) |
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How can a molecule with polar bonds be non-polar? |
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101 | (1) |
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4.3 The van der Waals interaction |
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102 | (8) |
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103 | (3) |
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Permanent dipolar interactions |
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106 | (1) |
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Induced dipolar interactions |
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107 | (1) |
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107 | (1) |
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Balancing attraction and repulsion: the van der Waals interaction |
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108 | (2) |
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4.4 Beyond van der Waals: other biologically essential interactions |
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110 | (12) |
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110 | (6) |
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116 | (3) |
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119 | (3) |
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Holding it together: a summary of non-covalent interactions in biological molecules |
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122 | (1) |
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4.5 Life in water: how molecular interactions influence water solubility |
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122 | (4) |
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The role of solvation in aqueous systems |
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123 | (2) |
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Water is not the only solvent |
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125 | (1) |
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How do molecular interactions influence the design of drugs? |
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126 | (1) |
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4.6 Breaking molecular interactions: the three phases of matter |
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126 | (7) |
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How is the phase of a substance changed? |
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128 | (1) |
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The transition between phases |
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129 | (1) |
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How do non-covalent interactions influence the phase of a substance? |
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130 | (3) |
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5 Moles, concentrations, and dilutions: making sense of chemical numbers |
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133 | (38) |
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133 | (4) |
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The relationship between molar quantity and mass: molar mass |
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134 | (1) |
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The molar mass of a compound |
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135 | (1) |
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How do we calculate the amount of an element in a sample? |
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136 | (1) |
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5.2 Concentrations: working with amounts in solution |
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137 | (7) |
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How do we calculate the amount of substance in solution? |
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139 | (1) |
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How do we prepare a solution of known concentration? |
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140 | (2) |
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How do we prepare solutions according to percentage by weight? |
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142 | (1) |
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How do we calculate the concentration of a solution? |
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143 | (1) |
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5.3 Changing the concentration: solutions and dilutions |
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144 | (7) |
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How do we work out the concentration of a diluted solution? |
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144 | (2) |
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How much water do we add to dilute a solution to a desired concentration? |
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146 | (2) |
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148 | (3) |
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5.4 How do we measure concentrations? |
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151 | (20) |
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Titrations: using chemical reactions to measure concentrations |
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152 | (4) |
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156 | (6) |
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162 | (7) |
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Maths Tool 2 How do we rearrange equations? |
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169 | (2) |
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6 Hydrocarbons: the framework of life |
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171 | (25) |
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6.1 What is organic chemistry? |
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171 | (4) |
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172 | (1) |
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Why is carbon the central biological element? |
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173 | (1) |
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What are the key components of organic compounds? |
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173 | (2) |
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6.2 Hydrocarbons: the framework of organic compounds |
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175 | (10) |
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Chemical Toolkit 4 Chemical notation: drawing chemical structures |
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178 | (3) |
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How do we name the hydrocarbons? |
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181 | (2) |
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The shape of organic compounds |
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183 | (2) |
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6.3 Members of the hydrocarbon family |
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185 | (7) |
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185 | (5) |
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The alkenes: hydrocarbons with a double carbon-carbon bond |
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190 | (1) |
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The alkynes: hydrocarbons with a triple carbon-carbon bond |
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191 | (1) |
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The aryl group: a special hydrocarbon group |
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191 | (1) |
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6.4 Physical and chemical properties of the hydrocarbons |
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192 | (4) |
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Are hydrocarbons soluble in water? |
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193 | (1) |
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Chemical properties of the hydrocarbons |
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194 | (2) |
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7 Functional groups: adding function to the framework of life |
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196 | (33) |
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7.1 Adding functional groups to the hydrocarbon framework |
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196 | (4) |
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How do functional groups affect the properties of organic compounds? |
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197 | (2) |
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Functional groups versus the hydrocarbon framework: a balancing act |
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199 | (1) |
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7.2 Organic compounds with oxygen-based functional groups |
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200 | (16) |
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201 | (3) |
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204 | (2) |
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206 | (5) |
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211 | (2) |
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213 | (3) |
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7.3 Organic compounds with nitrogen-based functional groups |
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216 | (8) |
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217 | (5) |
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222 | (2) |
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7.4 The sulfur-based functional group: the thiol group |
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224 | (5) |
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8 Molecular shape and structure: life in three dimensions |
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229 | (31) |
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8.1 What influences the shape of molecules? |
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230 | (3) |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (3) |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (8) |
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Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) |
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234 | (6) |
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What is the geometry of atoms in larger molecules? |
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240 | (1) |
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8.3 Hybridization of atomic orbitals during bond formation |
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241 | (8) |
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What hybridization occurs during double and triple bond formation? |
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243 | (4) |
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Do orbitals containing non-bonding pairs of valence electrons become hybridized? |
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247 | (2) |
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8.4 Bond rotation and conformation |
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249 | (11) |
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Conformation versus configuration |
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251 | (2) |
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How is bond rotation limited? |
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253 | (4) |
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Chemical Toolkit 5 How do we draw cyclic structures? |
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257 | (3) |
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9 Isomerism: generating chemical variety |
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260 | (37) |
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260 | (2) |
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261 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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262 | (7) |
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How do we distinguish structural isomers? |
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262 | (1) |
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Generating structural isomers: why does the shape of the carbon framework matter? |
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262 | (1) |
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Generating structural isomers: why does the positioning of functional groups matter? |
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263 | (2) |
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Chemical Toolkit 6 How do we use nomenclature to specify the structure of compounds? |
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265 | (2) |
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Structural isomers can belong to different chemical families |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (7) |
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Cis-trans isomerism in molecules with a double bond |
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270 | (4) |
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274 | (1) |
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Cis-trans isomerism in cyclic structures |
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275 | (1) |
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276 | (10) |
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278 | (3) |
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Enantiomers with multiple chirality centres |
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281 | (1) |
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How do we distinguish one enantiomer from its mirror image? |
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282 | (1) |
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Chemical Toolkit 7 The R/S nomenclature for distinguishing between enantiomers |
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283 | (3) |
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9.5 Chirality in biological systems |
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286 | (3) |
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Are pairs of enantiomers equally active in biological systems? |
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288 | (1) |
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9.6 The chemistry of isomers |
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289 | (8) |
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The biological chemistry of enantiomers |
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291 | (1) |
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The impact of chirality on medicinal chemistry |
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292 | (5) |
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10 Biological macromolecules: the infrastructure of life |
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297 | (52) |
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10.1 Amino acids and proteins |
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297 | (19) |
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The composition of amino acids |
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298 | (1) |
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How are polypeptides formed? |
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299 | (4) |
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How do polypeptides have polarity? |
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303 | (1) |
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The shape and structure of polypeptides |
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304 | (9) |
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How is the structure of a protein stabilized? |
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313 | (2) |
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The hierarchy of biological structure |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (14) |
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What are the components of a nucleotide? |
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316 | (3) |
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How are nucleic acids formed? |
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319 | (4) |
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The shape and structure of nucleic acids |
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323 | (5) |
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Nucleic acids: nature's energy stores |
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328 | (2) |
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330 | (8) |
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What is the structure of a monosaccharide? |
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331 | (3) |
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The shape and structure of larger sugars |
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334 | (1) |
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The structural diversity of polysaccharides |
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335 | (3) |
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338 | (11) |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (2) |
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341 | (3) |
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344 | (5) |
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11 Metals in biology: life beyond carbon |
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349 | (26) |
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349 | (4) |
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Which elements are metals? |
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350 | (3) |
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11.2 Metals in communication and control |
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353 | (8) |
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The role of metals in nerve impulses |
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353 | (3) |
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How is calcium involved in cell signalling? |
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356 | (5) |
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11.3 Metals as biological building materials |
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361 | (1) |
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11.4 How do metals contribute to the structure and function of proteins? |
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361 | (6) |
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The impact of metals on molecular structure: the zinc finger motif |
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362 | (1) |
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363 | (4) |
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11.5 Metals in cell metabolism |
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367 | (8) |
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The role of metals in biochemical reactions |
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368 | (3) |
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The role of trace metals in biology |
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371 | (1) |
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The role of metals in energy transduction |
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372 | (3) |
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12 Chemical reactions, oxidation, and reduction: bringing molecules to life |
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375 | (45) |
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12.1 What is a chemical reaction? |
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375 | (6) |
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The stoichiometry of chemical reactions |
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376 | (2) |
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How do we balance a reaction equation? |
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378 | (1) |
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How do we use balanced reaction equations quantitatively? |
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379 | (2) |
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12.2 The molecular basis of chemical reactions |
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381 | (3) |
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How do valence electrons move during chemical reactions? |
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382 | (1) |
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How do we depict the movement of electrons? |
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383 | (1) |
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12.3 Heterolytic reactions |
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384 | (6) |
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385 | (1) |
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386 | (1) |
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What is a nucleophilic attack? |
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387 | (1) |
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How are bonds polarized during heterolytic reactions? |
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387 | (3) |
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390 | (6) |
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The stages of a homolytic reaction |
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391 | (3) |
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Free radicals in biological systems |
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394 | (1) |
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Homolytic versus heterolytic cleavage |
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395 | (1) |
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12.5 Oxidation and reduction |
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396 | (3) |
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Redox reactions: the transfer of electrons |
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397 | (2) |
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12.6 The standard reduction potential |
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399 | (6) |
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How do we measure the standard reduction potential? |
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400 | (1) |
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Using the standard reduction potential: the relative strength of reducing agents |
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401 | (3) |
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Which species will be the reducing agent? |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (5) |
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How do we assign oxidation numbers to track redox reactions? |
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405 | (4) |
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How should we interpret the `loss of electrons' during redox reactions? |
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409 | (1) |
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12.8 Oxidation and reduction in biological systems |
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410 | (10) |
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Electron carriers in biological systems: some examples |
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413 | (2) |
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Oxidation and reduction during enzyme catalysis |
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415 | (5) |
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13 Reaction mechanisms: the chemical changes that drive the chemistry of life |
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420 | (51) |
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13.1 An introduction to reaction mechanisms |
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420 | (4) |
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Transition states and intermediates |
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421 | (3) |
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13.2 Substitution reactions |
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424 | (7) |
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Aliphatic nucleophilic substitution reactions |
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424 | (1) |
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One-step versus two-step substitution |
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425 | (3) |
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Electrophilic substitution reactions |
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428 | (3) |
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13.3 Nucleophilic addition reactions |
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431 | (10) |
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How are non-polar molecules added across a double bond? |
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432 | (2) |
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Addition across a carbonyl double bond |
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434 | (1) |
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Hydration of carbonyl groups |
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435 | (2) |
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The reaction of carbonyl groups to form acetals and ketals |
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437 | (2) |
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439 | (2) |
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13.4 Elimination reactions |
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441 | (5) |
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One-step versus two-step elimination |
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443 | (1) |
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What determines whether an elimination or a substitution reaction occurs? |
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444 | (2) |
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446 | (4) |
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Esterification is also a condensation reaction |
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447 | (3) |
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13.6 Hydrolysis: breaking apart what condensation has joined |
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450 | (4) |
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Powering the body: the hydrolysis of ATP |
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451 | (3) |
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13.7 Biochemical reactions: from food to energy |
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454 | (17) |
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The reaction mechanisms underpinning glycolysis |
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454 | (9) |
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463 | (1) |
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Beyond glycolysis: how does the oxidation of glucose ultimately power the cell? |
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463 | (2) |
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Oxidative phosphorylation: the reduction of oxygen at the end of the line |
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465 | (6) |
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14 Energy: what makes reactions go? |
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471 | (49) |
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471 | (7) |
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The conservation of energy |
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472 | (1) |
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473 | (2) |
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475 | (3) |
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478 | (5) |
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How is energy transferred as work? |
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480 | (1) |
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How is energy transferred as heat? |
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481 | (2) |
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What is the difference between heat and temperature? |
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483 | (1) |
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14.3 Energy changes during chemical reactions |
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483 | (13) |
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Chemical Toolkit 8 Standard states: making sense of measurements |
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486 | (1) |
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How do we evaluate the energy change during a chemical reaction? |
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487 | (2) |
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How do we calculate an enthalpy change using bond energies? |
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489 | (3) |
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Enthalpy changes are given different names according to the processes they represent |
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492 | (1) |
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How do we calculate an enthalpy change using standard enthalpy changes of formation? |
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492 | (2) |
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How do we measure the enthalpy of a reaction directly? |
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494 | (1) |
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Enthalpy changes in biological systems |
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495 | (1) |
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The enthalpy change as a measure of the stability of chemical compounds |
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495 | (1) |
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14.4 Entropy: the distribution of energy as the engine of change |
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496 | (7) |
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Entropy in chemical and biological systems |
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498 | (2) |
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What is the link between entropy and energy? |
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500 | (1) |
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How does temperature influence entropy? |
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501 | (2) |
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14.5 What are spontaneous reactions-and why are they important? |
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503 | (6) |
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The entropy of spontaneous reactions |
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505 | (2) |
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How do biological systems obey the Second Law? |
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507 | (2) |
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14.6 Gibbs free energy: the driving force of chemical reactions |
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509 | (11) |
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The Gibbs free energy of spontaneous reactions |
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|
512 | (2) |
|
The impact of Gibbs free energy on cell metabolism |
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514 | (6) |
|
15 Equilibria: how far do reactions go? |
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520 | (42) |
|
15.1 Equilibrium reactions |
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520 | (6) |
|
Do equilibrium reactions result in change? |
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522 | (2) |
|
Does it matter which reaction is `forward' and which is `back'? |
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524 | (2) |
|
15.2 Forward and back reactions: where is the balance struck? |
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526 | (9) |
|
What does the equilibrium constant tell us? |
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526 | (2) |
|
How do we calculate the equilibrium constant using partial pressures? |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
What does the magnitude of an equilibrium constant tell us? |
|
|
530 | (3) |
|
How do equilibrium constants depend on temperature and concentration? |
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
15.3 The reaction quotient |
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535 | (3) |
|
How can we use the reaction quotient to predict the direction of a reaction? |
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536 | (2) |
|
15.4 Binding reactions in biological systems |
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|
538 | (4) |
|
What does the dissociation constant tell us? |
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|
540 | (2) |
|
15.5 Perturbing an equilibrium |
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542 | (9) |
|
Changing the concentration of the system |
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543 | (4) |
|
Changing the pressure or volume of the system |
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|
547 | (2) |
|
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549 | (2) |
|
15.6 The impact of free energy on chemical equilibria |
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|
551 | (11) |
|
What is the free energy of a reaction at equilibrium? |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
The van't Hoff isotherm: linking K and ΔG |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
How do we use the van't Hoff isotherm to predict spontaneity? |
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|
553 | (2) |
|
How do we use the van't Hoff isotherm to predict the position of equilibrium? |
|
|
555 | (3) |
|
Maths Tool 3 Handling brackets |
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|
558 | (1) |
|
Maths Tool 4 The exponential and logarithmic functions |
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|
559 | (3) |
|
16 Kinetics: what affects the speed of a reaction? |
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562 | (48) |
|
16.1 The rate of reaction |
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|
562 | (11) |
|
What is the rate of a reaction? |
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|
563 | (2) |
|
How do we measure the rate of a reaction? |
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
The rate of equilibrium reactions |
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
The order of reactions: what is the relationship between reaction rate and concentration? |
|
|
569 | (2) |
|
The half-life of a reaction |
|
|
571 | (2) |
|
16.2 The collision theory of reaction rates |
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|
573 | (3) |
|
Increasing the reaction rate by increasing the concentration |
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|
574 | (1) |
|
Increasing the reaction rate by increasing the temperature |
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|
574 | (2) |
|
16.3 The activation energy: getting reactions started |
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|
576 | (3) |
|
Breaking the energy barrier: the transition state |
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|
578 | (1) |
|
16.4 Catalysis: changing the reaction pathway |
|
|
579 | (3) |
|
The role of catalysts in chemical reactions |
|
|
579 | (3) |
|
16.5 Enzymes: the biological catalysts |
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|
582 | (10) |
|
The specificity of enzymes |
|
|
584 | (2) |
|
What happens during enzyme catalysis? |
|
|
586 | (2) |
|
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Why do enzymes face limitations by being proteins? |
|
|
589 | (3) |
|
|
|
592 | (8) |
|
Increasing substrate concentration: the limitation of the enzyme's active site |
|
|
592 | (3) |
|
How do we determine the values of KM and Vmax? |
|
|
595 | (5) |
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|
600 | (10) |
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601 | (1) |
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|
601 | (6) |
|
Maths Tool 5 Measuring the gradient of a curve |
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607 | (3) |
|
17 Acids, bases, and buffer solutions: life in an aqueous environment |
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|
610 | (53) |
|
17.1 Acids and bases: making life happen |
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|
610 | (7) |
|
What is the definition of an acid and a base? |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
How do acids and bases behave in aqueous solution? |
|
|
612 | (2) |
|
Pairing up acids and bases: the conjugate acid-base pair |
|
|
614 | (3) |
|
Water: a split personality |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
17.2 The strength of acids and bases: to what extent does dissociation occur? |
|
|
617 | (10) |
|
The tug-of-war between conjugate acid-base pairs: who wins in the battle for hydrogen ions? |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
The acid dissociation constant: To what extent does an acid dissociate? |
|
|
620 | (2) |
|
The base dissociation constant: To what extent does a base dissociate? |
|
|
622 | (2) |
|
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
|
625 | (2) |
|
17.3 Keeping things balanced: the ion product of water |
|
|
627 | (3) |
|
How can we make use of the ion product of water? |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
How does the ion product of water link Ka and Kb? |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
17.4 The concentration of acids: the pH scale |
|
|
630 | (9) |
|
How do [ H+] and [ OH-] vary with pH? |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
What are the pHs of strong and weak acids? |
|
|
633 | (3) |
|
Linking weak acid strength and pH: using the Henderson--Hasselbalch equation |
|
|
636 | (3) |
|
17.5 Changing pH: neutralization reactions |
|
|
639 | (2) |
|
Neutralization reactions in biological systems |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
17.6 The behaviour of acids and bases in biological systems |
|
|
641 | (7) |
|
The effect of acidity and basicity on partitioning between aqueous and hydrophobic systems |
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
The effect of pH on the extent of acid dissociation |
|
|
643 | (1) |
|
What does the pKa tell us about the extent of acid dissociation? |
|
|
644 | (3) |
|
The impart of pH on drug design |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
17.7 Buffer solutions: keeping pH the same |
|
|
648 | (15) |
|
How does a buffer solution work? |
|
|
649 | (4) |
|
How can we determine the pH of a buffer solution? |
|
|
653 | (3) |
|
How do we prepare buffer solutions to a desired pH? |
|
|
656 | (5) |
|
Maths Tool 6 How do we solve quadratic equations? |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Maths Tool 7 How do we work with ratios? |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
18 Chemical analysis: characterizing chemical compounds |
|
|
663 | (60) |
|
18.1 What is chemical analysis? |
|
|
663 | (2) |
|
How do we separate out what is there? |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
|
665 | (4) |
|
|
|
669 | (6) |
|
Liquid-liquid chromatography |
|
|
670 | (3) |
|
Changing the mobile phase: liquid and gas chromatography |
|
|
673 | (2) |
|
|
|
675 | (6) |
|
|
|
677 | (4) |
|
|
|
681 | (4) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
Sample collection from centrifuges |
|
|
683 | (2) |
|
18.6 Measuring mass: mass spectrometry |
|
|
685 | (11) |
|
How does mass spectrometry work? |
|
|
685 | (3) |
|
The mass spectrum: the outcome of mass spectrometry |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
What can mass spectrometry tell us? |
|
|
689 | (4) |
|
|
|
693 | (2) |
|
How can we couple separation with identification? |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
18.7 Building up the picture: spectroscopic techniques |
|
|
696 | (4) |
|
Spectroscopy: using electromagnetic radiation to study molecules |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
What are we measuring when we use spectroscopy? |
|
|
697 | (3) |
|
How do we use spectroscopy to characterize chemical compounds? |
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
18.8 Characterizing the hydrocarbon framework: nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy |
|
|
700 | (8) |
|
|
|
702 | (3) |
|
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
How do we use NMR to analyse mixtures? |
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
Magnetic resonance imaging |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
18.9 Identifying functional groups using infrared spectroscopy |
|
|
708 | (6) |
|
18.10 Identifying functional groups using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy |
|
|
714 | (3) |
|
How does UV-visible light cause molecular excitation? |
|
|
714 | (2) |
|
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
18.11 Establishing 3D structure: X-ray crystallography |
|
|
717 | (6) |
|
How was X-ray crystallography used to determine the structure of DNA? |
|
|
719 | (4) |
| Bibliography |
|
723 | (3) |
| Answers to self-check questions |
|
726 | (9) |
| Index |
|
735 | |
