Contributors |
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xiii | |
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1 An Introduction to the Complex Connection Between Cannabis and Schizophrenia |
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1 | (8) |
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1 | (2) |
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3 | (1) |
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Brief Overview of the Book |
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4 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (3) |
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2 The Epidemiology of Cannabis Use in the United States |
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9 | (28) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Use Disorders Among Youth |
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12 | (1) |
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Trends in Cannabis, Tobacco, and Alcohol Use Among Youth |
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12 | (1) |
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Trends in Risk Perceptions of Smoking Cannabis and Perceived Cannabis Availability Among Youth |
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12 | (1) |
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Trends in Cannabis Use Disorders and Perceived Risk of Smoking Cannabis Among Youth Cannabis Users |
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12 | (1) |
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Trends in and Associations of Cannabis Use Among Youth Tobacco and Alcohol Users |
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13 | (7) |
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Other Correlates of Cannabis Use and Use Disorders Among Youth |
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20 | (1) |
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Implications of Trends and Correlates of Cannabis Use Among Youth |
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21 | (1) |
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Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Use Disorders Among Adults |
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22 | (1) |
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Trends in Cannabis Use, Use Disorders, and Use Frequency Among Adults and Adult Users |
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22 | (2) |
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Associations Between Trends in Cannabis Use, Use Disorders, Use Frequency, and Perceived Risk of Smoking Cannabis Among Adults |
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24 | (2) |
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Other Correlates of Cannabis Use and Use Disorders Among Adults |
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26 | (1) |
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Implications of Trends and Correlates of Cannabis Use and Use Disorders Among Adults |
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26 | (6) |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (4) |
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3 Cannabinoids and the Brain: The Effects of Endogenous and Exogenous Cannabinoids on Brain Systems and Function |
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37 | (38) |
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37 | (2) |
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The Biology of the Endocannabinoid System |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (1) |
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Mechanisms of Endocannabinoid Transmission |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (1) |
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43 | (1) |
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Neuroplastic Changes Induced by Cannabinoids |
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43 | (1) |
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Depolarization-Induced Sustained Inhibition or Excitation |
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43 | (1) |
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Long-Term Potentiation or Depression |
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44 | (1) |
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Endocannabinoids and Psychosis |
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44 | (2) |
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Mechanisms of Psychosis and the Effects of Cannabinoids |
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46 | (1) |
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46 | (1) |
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Dopamine, Cannabinoids, and Schizophrenia |
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46 | (1) |
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Endocannabinoids, Psychosis, and Perception and Understanding of Self |
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46 | (1) |
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Shared Biomarkers of Schizophrenia and Cannabinoid Activity |
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47 | (1) |
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Prefrontal Cortex Anomalies |
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48 | (1) |
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Interindividual Vulnerability to Cannabis-Induced Psychosis |
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49 | (1) |
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Psychosis and Cannabis: Intersection in the Hippocampus |
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50 | (1) |
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A Working Model of Cannabis-Induced Psychosis Based on Declarative Memory Dysfunction |
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50 | (2) |
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Effects of Cannabis on the Hippocampus and the Relationship to Schizophrenia |
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52 | (2) |
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Summarizing a Working Model |
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54 | (1) |
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Cannabinoids and Psychosis: Neuropsychological Constructs |
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54 | (1) |
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Cannabis, Mood and Affect, and Psychosis |
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54 | (1) |
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Endocannabinoids, Cannabis, Reward Processing, and Psychosis |
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55 | (1) |
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Cannabis, Psychosis, and Salience |
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55 | (1) |
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Cannabis, Psychosis, Attention, and Cognition |
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56 | (1) |
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Effects of Cannabis Use on Motivation---A Possible Dimension of Psychosis |
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56 | (1) |
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The Endocannabinoid System's Role in Development and the Disruptive Effects of Exogenous Cannabinoids on Neurogenesis |
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57 | (1) |
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Cannabinoids, Psychosis, and the Genome |
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57 | (1) |
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Effects of Cannabinoids on Embryonic Development Related to Psychosis |
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58 | (1) |
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Effects of Cannabinoids on Childhood Development |
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59 | (1) |
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Effects of Cannabinoids on Adolescent Development and Disruptions Related to Psychosis |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (14) |
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4 Psychotomimetic and Cognitive Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Laboratory Settings |
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75 | (54) |
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75 | (1) |
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Designing and Interpreting HLS of Cannabinoids |
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76 | (1) |
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Properties of Cannabinoid Formulations Used in Laboratory Studies |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (2) |
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Intravenous Administration |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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Some Considerations on Study Design |
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82 | (2) |
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Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Human Laboratory Studies |
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84 | (1) |
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Effects in Healthy Individuals |
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84 | (19) |
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Effects in Individuals With Schizophrenia |
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103 | (1) |
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Effects in Cannabis Users |
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104 | (2) |
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Factors Modulating the Psychotomimetic and Cognitive Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in HLS |
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106 | (1) |
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106 | (2) |
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Interactions With Other Drugs |
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108 | (1) |
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Psychophysiological Markers of Psychotomimetic and Cognitive Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Human Laboratory Studies |
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109 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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Neural Oscillations: Steady-State Response |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (13) |
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5 Psychotomimetic and Cognitive Effects of Cannabis Use in the General Population |
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129 | (28) |
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129 | (1) |
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Psychotic-Like Symptoms and Experiences in Cannabis Users in the General Population |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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Psychotomimetic Experiences |
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132 | (1) |
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Psychotic-Like Symptoms and Experiences Assessed in Epidemiological Studies |
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133 | (5) |
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Overall Evidence for Associations, Potential Confounders, and Interactions |
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138 | (2) |
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Vulnerabilities and Potential Mechanisms |
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140 | (2) |
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Effects of Proportional Exposure to THC Versus CBD |
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142 | (1) |
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Cognitive Effects of Cannabis Use on Users in the General Population |
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143 | (3) |
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146 | (2) |
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148 | (9) |
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6 The Association Between Cannabis Use and Schizotypy |
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157 | (10) |
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Characteristics of Schizotypy |
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157 | (1) |
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Commonly Used Measures of Schizotypy |
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158 | (1) |
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Significant Associations Between Schizotypy and Cannabis Use |
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159 | (3) |
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Broadening the Schizotypy-Cannabis Association |
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162 | (1) |
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Directions for Future Study |
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163 | (1) |
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164 | (3) |
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7 Effects of Cannabis Use in Those at Ultra-High Risk for Psychosis |
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167 | (16) |
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Overview of the Concept of Ultra-High Risk for Psychosis |
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167 | (1) |
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Does Cannabis Use Increase Risk of Transition to Psychosis in Those Identified as Ultra-High Risk for Psychosis? |
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168 | (1) |
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Age at First Cannabis Use and Risk of Transition |
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169 | (5) |
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Lifetime Cannabis Use and Risk of Transition: Caveats in Interpretation of Findings to Date |
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174 | (1) |
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Does Cannabis Use Increase the Likelihood of Being at Ultra-High Risk for Psychosis? |
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175 | (1) |
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Possible Confounders in the Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Risk of Transition |
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175 | (1) |
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Future Directions for Research |
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176 | (1) |
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Improving the Identification of Ultra-High Risk Individuals Who Are at Greatest Risk of Transition |
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176 | (1) |
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Including a Broader Array of Relevant Risk Factors |
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177 | (1) |
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Developing Interventions for Cannabis Misuse in the Ultra-High Risk Group |
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177 | (1) |
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Cannabinoids as a Potential Intervention in Those at Ultra-High Risk |
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178 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (4) |
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8 Cannabis-Induced Psychotic Disorders |
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183 | (16) |
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Nosology and Classification |
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183 | (3) |
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186 | (1) |
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Psychopathological Features of Cannabis-Induced Psychotic Disorder and Possible Differences With Schizophrenia and Other Primary Psychotic Disorders |
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187 | (3) |
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190 | (1) |
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Epidemiology and Conversion of Cannabis-Induced Psychotic Disorder to Primary Psychotic Disorders |
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191 | (1) |
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Conclusions and Future Directions |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (6) |
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9 Synthetic Cannabinoids and Synthetic Cannabinoid-Induced Psychotic Disorders |
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199 | (22) |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (2) |
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Synthetic Cannabinoid Use |
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202 | (1) |
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Composition and Pharmacology |
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203 | (1) |
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Acute Effects, Lethality, Tolerance, and Withdrawal |
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204 | (2) |
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Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Psychosis |
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206 | (1) |
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Synthetic Cannabinoids and Psychosis |
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207 | (2) |
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Treatment of Synthetic Cannabinoid-Induced Psychosis |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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210 | (1) |
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210 | (11) |
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10 Cannabis Use as an Independent Risk Factor for, or Component Cause of, Schizophrenia and Related Psychotic Disorders |
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221 | (26) |
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Evidence for Direct Causality |
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221 | (1) |
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Association Between Cannabis Use and Schizophrenia |
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221 | (1) |
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Cannabis Use Precedes the Development of Schizophrenia |
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222 | (1) |
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The Influence of Confounder Variables That Cause Both Cannabis Use and Schizophrenia Can Be Ruled Out |
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223 | (1) |
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A Dose-Response Relationship Between Extent of Cannabis Use and Rate of Developing Schizophrenia Can Be Found |
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224 | (1) |
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Evidence for Reverse Causation: Do Early Manifestations of Psychotic Disorders Cause Cannabis Use? (The Self-Medication Hypothesis) |
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224 | (1) |
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Evidence for Shared Etiology: Common Underlying Factors or Confounding Mechanisms |
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225 | (1) |
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225 | (2) |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (1) |
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229 | (2) |
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Evidence for Gene-by-Cannabis Interactions |
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231 | (1) |
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Catechol-O-Methyltransferase |
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231 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (1) |
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Plausible Biological Mechanisms Supporting Causation |
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234 | (2) |
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236 | (2) |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (9) |
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11 Cannabis Use as a Determinant of Earlier Age at Onset of Schizophrenia and Related Psychotic Disorders |
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247 | (24) |
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Cannabis Use in Schizophrenia |
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247 | (1) |
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What is Considered the Onset of Psychosis? |
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247 | (1) |
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Why is Age at Onset of Schizophrenia Important? |
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248 | (1) |
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Cannabis Use is a Predictor of Earlier Age at Onset of Psychosis |
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249 | (1) |
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What is the Temporal Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Age at Onset? |
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250 | (1) |
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Cannabis Use Usually Precedes Onset of Psychosis |
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250 | (1) |
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Cannabis Use Sometimes Precedes the Onset of Prodromal Symptoms |
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251 | (1) |
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Is the Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Earlier Onset of Psychosis Different for Nonaffective Versus Affective Psychotic Disorders? |
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252 | (1) |
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Is There a Dose-Response Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Age at Onset? |
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252 | (2) |
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Is Cannabis Use Associated With an Earlier Age at Onset of Prodromal Symptoms? |
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254 | (2) |
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Is Cannabis Use Associated With a Shorter Prodrome? |
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256 | (1) |
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Is the Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Age at Onset Moderated by Sex, Other Substance Use, Genetic Factors, or Any Other Known Variables? |
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257 | (1) |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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Gene-by-Environment Interactions |
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259 | (3) |
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Challenges in Documenting Age at Onset of Illness and Premorbid Cannabis Use |
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262 | (1) |
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What is the Direction of the Association Between Cannabis Use and Age at Onset of Psychosis? |
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263 | (2) |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (5) |
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12 The Prevalence and Effects of Cannabis Use Among Individuals With Schizophrenia and Related Psychotic Disorders |
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271 | (18) |
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Carlos-Alfonso Tovilla-Zarate |
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271 | (1) |
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Prevalence of Cannabis Use in Individuals With Schizophrenia and Related Psychotic Disorders |
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271 | (1) |
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272 | (2) |
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274 | (1) |
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Determinants of and Motivations for Cannabis Use |
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275 | (1) |
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Clinical Effects of Cannabis Use in the Context of Schizophrenia and Related Psychotic Disorders |
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276 | (1) |
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Positive and Negative Symptoms |
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276 | (2) |
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278 | (1) |
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Treatment Adherence and Relapses |
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279 | (1) |
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Studies on the Clinical Effects of Cannabis Use Cessation |
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280 | (1) |
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Psychosocial Effects of Cannabis Use in Persons With Schizophrenia and Related Psychotic Disorders |
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281 | (1) |
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Interpersonal Consequences |
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281 | (1) |
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282 | (1) |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (1) |
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Conclusions and Research Needs |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | (4) |
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13 The Treatment of Cannabis Use Disorder Among Individuals With a Psychotic Disorder |
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289 | (20) |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (2) |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (1) |
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Psychological Interventions |
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294 | (2) |
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Combination of Antipsychotic Medication and Psychological Interventions |
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296 | (1) |
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296 | (2) |
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298 | (1) |
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298 | (1) |
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299 | (1) |
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299 | (1) |
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Dopamine Antagonists/Antipsychotic Medications |
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299 | (2) |
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Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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Anxiolytics and Antidepressants |
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301 | (1) |
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302 | (1) |
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303 | (6) |
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14 Cannabidiol as a Potential Novel Therapeutic Agent for Psychotic Disorders |
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309 | (24) |
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309 | (1) |
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Psychosis, Cannabis, and Endocannabinoids |
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309 | (5) |
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314 | (1) |
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Animal Models of Schizophrenia |
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314 | (2) |
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316 | (1) |
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316 | (3) |
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Genetic and Neurodevelopmental Models |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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Epidemiological Studies in Cannabis Users |
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320 | (3) |
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Studies in Healthy Volunteers |
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323 | (4) |
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Studies Among Individuals With Schizophrenia |
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327 | (2) |
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Regulation of Medical Marijuana and Cannabis-Derived Medicines |
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329 | (1) |
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330 | (1) |
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Conclusions and Needed Research |
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331 | (2) |
References |
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333 | (8) |
Index |
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341 | |