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xv | |
| Author Biography |
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xvii | |
| Preface |
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xix | |
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Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Field of Developmental Neurobiology |
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1 | (3) |
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Cellular Structures And Anatomical Regions Of The Nervous System |
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4 | (1) |
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The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems Are Comprised of Neurons and Glia |
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5 | (2) |
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The Nervous System Is Organized around Three Axes |
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7 | (1) |
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Origins Of Cns And Pns Regions |
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8 | (1) |
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The Vertebrate Neural Plate Gives Rise to Central and Peripheral Structures |
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9 | (1) |
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Future Vertebrate CNS Regions Are Identified at Early Stages of Neural Development |
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10 | (1) |
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The Timing of Developmental Events Is Standardized in Many Vertebrates |
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10 | (5) |
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Anatomical Regions and the Timing of Developmental Events Are Mapped in Invertebrate Nervous Systems |
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15 | (1) |
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The Drosophila CNS and PNS Arise from Distinct Areas of Ectoderm |
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16 | (2) |
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Cell Lineages Can Be Mapped in C. Elegans |
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18 | (2) |
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Gene Regulation In The Developing Nervous System |
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20 | (4) |
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Experimental Techniques Are Used to Label Genes and Proteins in the Developing Nervous System |
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24 | (1) |
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Altering Development Helps Understand Normal Processes |
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25 | (4) |
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Using Naturally Occurring Events to Understand Neural Development |
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29 | (4) |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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Chapter 2 Neural Induction |
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35 | (22) |
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Neural Tissue Is Designated During Embryogenesis |
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35 | (1) |
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Gastrulation Creates New Cell and Tissue Interactions That Influence Neural Induction |
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36 | (4) |
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Neural Induction: Early Discoveries |
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40 | (1) |
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Amphibian Models Were Used in Early Neuroembryology Research and Remain Popular Today |
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40 | (1) |
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A Region of the Dorsal Blastopore Lip Organizes the Amphibian Body Axis and Induces the Formation of Neural Tissue |
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40 | (1) |
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The Search for the Neural Inducer Took Decades of Research |
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41 | (1) |
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New Tissue Culture Methods and Cell-Specific Markers Advanced the Search for Neural Inducers |
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42 | (1) |
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Neural Induction: The Next Phase Of Discoveries |
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42 | (1) |
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Studies Suggest Neural Induction Might Require Removal of Animal Cap-Derived Signals |
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43 | (1) |
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Mutation of the Activin Receptor Prevents the Formation of Ectoderm and Mesoderm but Induces Neural Tissue |
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44 | (1) |
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Modern Molecular Methods Led to the Identification of Three Neural Inducers |
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45 | (2) |
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Noggin, Follistatin, And Chordin Prevent Epidermal Induction |
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47 | (1) |
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Studies of Epidermal Induction Revealed the Mechanism for Neural Induction |
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47 | (1) |
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The Discovery of Neural Inducers in the Fruit Fly Drosophila Led to a New Model for Epidermal and Neural Induction |
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48 | (3) |
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BMP Signaling Pathways Are Regulated by SMADs |
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51 | (1) |
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Additional Signaling Pathways May Influence Neural Induction in Some Contexts |
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52 | (1) |
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Additional Neural Induction Pathways May Be Used in Some Species |
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52 | (2) |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (3) |
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Chapter 3 Segmentation of the Anterior-Posterior Axis |
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57 | (32) |
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57 | (3) |
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Early Segmentation of the Neural Tube Establishes Subsequent Organization |
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60 | (1) |
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Temporal-Spatial Differences in Organizer-Derived Signals Induce Head and Tail Structures |
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61 | (1) |
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Activating, Transforming, and Inhibitory Signals Interact to Pattern the A/P Axis |
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62 | (1) |
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Specification Of Forebrain Regions |
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63 | (1) |
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Signals from Extraembryonic Tissues Pattern Forebrain Areas |
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63 | (1) |
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Forebrain Segments Are Characterized by Different Patterns of Gene Expression |
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63 | (2) |
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Signals Prevent Wnt Activity in Forebrain Regions |
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65 | (1) |
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Regionalization Of The Mesencephalon And Metencephalon Regions |
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66 | (1) |
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Intrinsic Signals Pattern the Midbrain-Anterior Hindbrain |
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66 | (1) |
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Multiple Signals Interact to Pattern Structures Anterior and Posterior to the Isthmus |
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67 | (1) |
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FGF Is Required for Development of the Cerebellum |
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67 | (1) |
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FGF Isoforms and Intracellular Signaling Pathways Influence Cerebellar and Midbrain Development |
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68 | (1) |
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FGF and Wnt Interact to Pattern the A/P Axis |
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69 | (1) |
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Rhombomeres: Segments Of The Hindbrain |
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70 | (1) |
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Cells Usually Do Not Migrate between Adjacent Rhombomeres |
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70 | (2) |
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Multiple Signals Interact to Regulate Krox20 and EphA4 Expression in r3 and r5 |
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72 | (2) |
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Hox Genes Regulate Hindbrain Segmentation |
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74 | (1) |
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The Body Plan of Drosophila Is a Valuable Model for Studying Segmentation Genes |
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74 | (2) |
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The Homeotic Genes That Establish Segment Identity Are Conserved across Species |
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76 | (3) |
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Transcription Factors Regulate Hox Gene Expression and Rhombomere Identity |
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79 | (1) |
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Retinoic Acid Regulates Hox Gene Expression |
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80 | (1) |
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The RA-Degrading Enzyme Cyp26 Helps Regulate Hox Gene Activity in the Hindbrain |
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81 | (1) |
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RA and FGF Differentially Pattern Posterior Rhombomeres and Spinal Cord |
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82 | (1) |
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Cdx Transcription Factors Are Needed to Regulate Hox Gene Expression in the Spinal Cord |
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83 | (1) |
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The Activation-Transformation Model Is Being Revised |
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84 | (1) |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 Patterning along the Dorsal-Ventral Axis |
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89 | (34) |
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Anatomical Landmarks And Signaling Centers In The Posterior Vertebrate Neural Tube |
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89 | (1) |
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The Sulcus Limitans Is an Anatomical Landmark That Separates Sensory and Motor Regions |
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90 | (1) |
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Labeling Techniques Identify Cell Types along the D/V Axis |
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91 | (1) |
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The Roof Plate and Floor Plate Produce Signals That Influence D/V Patterning |
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92 | (1) |
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Roof Plate and Floor Plate Signals Influence Gene Expression Patterns along the D/V Axis of the Neural Tube |
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93 | (1) |
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Ventral Signals And Motor Neuron Patterning In The Posterior Neural Tube |
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93 | (1) |
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The Notochord Is Required to Specify Ventral Structures |
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93 | (1) |
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Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) Is Necessary for Floor Plate and Motor Neuron Induction |
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94 | (3) |
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Shh Concentration Differences Regulate Induction of Ventral Neuron Subtypes |
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97 | (1) |
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Genes Are Activated or Repressed by the Shh Gradient |
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98 | (1) |
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Shh Binds to and Regulates Patched Receptor Expression |
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99 | (4) |
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Shh Signals Interact to Influence Gene Expression and Ventral Patterning |
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103 | (1) |
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RA and FGF Signals Are Also Used in Ventral Patterning |
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104 | (1) |
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Dorsal Patterning In The Posterior Neural Tube |
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105 | (1) |
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TGFp-Related Molecules Help Pattern the Dorsal Neural Tube |
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105 | (1) |
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Roof Plate Signals Pattern a Subset of Dorsal Interneurons |
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106 | (1) |
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BMP-Related Signals Pattern Class A Interneurons |
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106 | (2) |
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BMP-Signaling May Influence Dorsal Cell Specification in Multiple Ways |
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108 | (1) |
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BMP-Like Signaling Pathways Are Regulated by SMADS |
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109 | (1) |
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Wnt Signaling through the p-Catenin Pathway Influences Development in the Dorsal Neural Tube |
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110 | (2) |
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BMP and Shh Antagonize Each Other to Form D/V Regions of the Neural Tube |
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112 | (3) |
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D/V Patterning In The Anterior Neural Tube |
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115 | (1) |
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Roof Plate Signals Interact with the Shh Signaling Pathway in the Cerebellum, Diencephalon, and Telencephalon |
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115 | (2) |
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Zic Mediates D/V Axis Specification by Integrating Dorsal and Ventral Signaling Pathways |
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117 | (1) |
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The Location of Cells along the A/P Axis Influences Their Response to Ventral Shh Signals |
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117 | (1) |
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Analysis of Birth Defects Reveals Roles of D/V Patterning Molecules in Normal Development |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (3) |
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Chapter 5 Proliferation and Migration of Neurons |
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123 | (38) |
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Neurogenesis And Gliogenesis |
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123 | (1) |
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Scientists Debated Whether Neurons and Glia Arise from Two Separate Cell Populations |
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124 | (1) |
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Neuroepithelial Cell Nuclei Travel between the Apical and Basal Surfaces |
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125 | (1) |
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Interkinetic Movements Are Linked to Stages of the Cell Cycle |
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126 | (1) |
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Cell Proliferation and Migration Are Influenced by the Cell Division Plane |
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127 | (1) |
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Distinct Proteins Are Concentrated at the Apical and Basal Poles of Progenitor Cells |
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128 | (2) |
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The Rate of Proliferation and the Length of the Cell Cycle Change over Time |
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130 | (4) |
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Cellular Migration In The Central Nervous System |
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134 | (1) |
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In the Neocortex, Newly Generated Neurons Form Transient Layers |
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134 | (4) |
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Most Neurons Travel along Radial Glial Cells to Reach the Cortical Plate |
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138 | (2) |
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Cells in the Cortical Plate Are Layered in an Inside-Out Pattern |
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140 | (1) |
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The Reeler Mutation Displays an Inverted Cell Migration Pattern |
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140 | (2) |
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Cajal-Retzius Cells Release the Protein Reelin, a Stop Signal for Migrating Neurons |
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142 | (2) |
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Cortical Interneurons Reach Target Areas by Tangential Migration |
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144 | (1) |
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Cell Migration Patterns in the Cerebellum Reflect Its Distinctive Organization |
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145 | (1) |
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Cerebellar Neurons Arise from Two Zones of Proliferation |
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146 | (2) |
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Granule Cell Migration from External to Internal Layers of the Cerebellar Cortex Is Facilitated by Astrotactin and Neuregulin |
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148 | (3) |
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Mutant Mice Provide Clues to the Process of Neuronal Migration in the Cerebellum |
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151 | (1) |
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Migration In The Peripheral Nervous System: Examples From Neural Crest Cells |
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152 | (1) |
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Neural Crest Cells Emerge from the Neural Plate Border |
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152 | (2) |
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Neural Crest Cells from Different Axial Levels Contribute to Specific Cell Populations |
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154 | (1) |
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Cranial Neural Crest Forms Structures in the Head |
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155 | (1) |
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Multiple Mechanisms Are Used to Direct Neural Crest Migration |
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156 | (1) |
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Trunk Neural Crest Cells Are Directed by Permissive and Inhibitory Cues |
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156 | (2) |
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Melanocytes Take a Different Migratory Route Than Other Neural Crest Cells |
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158 | (1) |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 Cell Determination and Early Differentiation |
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161 | (42) |
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Lateral Inhibition And Notch Receptor Signaling |
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162 | (1) |
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Lateral Inhibition Designates Future Neurons in Drosophila Neurogenic Regions |
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162 | (2) |
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Lateral Inhibition Designates Stripes of Neural Precursors in the Vertebrate Spinal Cord |
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164 | (1) |
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Cellular Determination In The Invertebrate Nervous System |
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165 | (1) |
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Cells of the Drosophila PNS Arise from Epidermis and Develop in Response to Differing Levels of Notch Signaling Activity |
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165 | (2) |
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Ganglion Mother Cells Give Rise to Drosophila CNS Neurons |
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167 | (1) |
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Apical and Basal Polarity Proteins Are Differentially Segregated in GMCs |
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168 | (1) |
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Cell Location and Temporal Transcription Factors Influence Cellular Determination |
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168 | (2) |
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Mechanisms Underlying Fate Determination In Vertebrate Cns Neurons |
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170 | (1) |
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Coordinating Signals Mediate the Progressive Development of Cerebellar Granule Cells |
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170 | (1) |
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Temporally Regulated Transcription Factor Networks Help Mediate the Fate of Cerebral Cortical Neurons |
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171 | (3) |
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Epigenetic Factors Influence Determination and Differentiation in Vertebrate Neurons |
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174 | (2) |
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Determination And Differentiation Of Neural Crest-Derived Neurons |
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176 | (1) |
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Environmental Cues Influence the Fate of Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Neurons |
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176 | (2) |
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Sympathetic Neurons Can Change Neurotransmitter Production Later in Development |
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178 | (1) |
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Determination Of Myelinating Glia In The Peripheral And Central Nervous System |
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179 | (1) |
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Neuregulin Influences Determination of Myelinating Schwann Cells in the PNS |
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179 | (4) |
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Precursor Cells in the Optic Nerve Are Used to Study Oligodendrocyte Development |
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183 | (2) |
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Internal Clocks Establish When Oligodendrocytes Will Start to Form |
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185 | (1) |
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Development Of Specialized Sensory Cells |
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186 | (1) |
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Cell-Cell Contact Regulates Cell Fate in the Compound Eye of Drosophila |
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186 | (4) |
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Cell-Cell Contacts and Gene Expression Patterns Establish R1-R7 Photoreceptor Cell Types |
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190 | (2) |
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Cells of the Vertebrate Inner Ear Arise from the Otic Vesicle |
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192 | (2) |
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Notch Signaling Specifies Hair Cells in the Organ of Corti |
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194 | (2) |
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Cells of the Vertebrate Retina Are Derived from the Optic Cup |
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196 | (1) |
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The Vertebrate Retina Cells Are Generated in a Specific Order and Organized in a Precise Pattern |
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197 | (2) |
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Temporal Identity Factors Play a Role in Vertebrate Retinal Development |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (3) |
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Chapter 7 Neurite Outgrowth, Axonal Pathfinding, and Initial Target Selection |
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203 | (38) |
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Growth Cone Motility And Pathfinding |
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203 | (1) |
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Early Neurobiologists Identify the Growth Cone as the Motile End of a Nerve Fiber |
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204 | (1) |
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In Vitro and In Vivo Experiments Confirm Neurite Outgrowth from Neuronal Cell Bodies |
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204 | (1) |
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Substrate Binding Influences Cytoskeletal Structures to Promote Growth Cone Motility |
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205 | (2) |
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Actin-Binding Proteins Regulate Actin Polymerization and Depolymerization |
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207 | (1) |
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Rho Family GTPases Influence Cytoskeletal Dynamics |
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207 | (2) |
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Growth Cone Substrate Preferences In Vitro And In Vivo |
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209 | (1) |
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In Vitro Studies Confirm That Growth Cones Actively Select a Favorable Substrate for Extension |
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209 | (1) |
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Extracellular Matrix Molecules and Growth Cone Receptors Interact to Direct Neurite Extension |
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210 | (1) |
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Pioneer Axons and Axonal Fasciculation Aid Pathway Selection |
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210 | (3) |
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Research in Invertebrate Models Leads to the Labeled Pathway Hypothesis |
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213 | (1) |
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Fasciclins Are Expressed on Axonal Surfaces |
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213 | (1) |
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Vertebrate Motor Neurons Rely on Local Guidance Cues |
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214 | (3) |
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Several Molecules Help Direct Motor Axons to Muscles |
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217 | (2) |
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Intermediate, Midline Targets For Spinal Commissural Axons |
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219 | (1) |
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The Axons of Vertebrate Commissural Interneurons Are Attracted to the Floor Plate |
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219 | (1) |
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Laminin-Like Midline Guidance Cues Are Found in Invertebrate and Vertebrate Animal Models |
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220 | (2) |
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Homologous Receptors Mediate Midline Attractive and Repulsive Guidance Cues |
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222 | (1) |
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Slit Proteins Provide Additional Axonal Guidance Cues at the Midline |
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223 | (1) |
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Slit Proteins Repel Commissural Axons away from the Midline by Activating Robo Receptors |
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224 | (1) |
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Robo Signaling Is Regulated by Additional Proteins Expressed on Commissural Axons |
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224 | (1) |
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Shh Phosphorylates Zip Code Binding Proteins to Increase Local Translation of Actin and Direct Growth of Vertebrate Commissural Axons |
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225 | (2) |
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The Retinotectal System And The Chemoaffinity Hypothesis |
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227 | (1) |
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Early Studies of Axon-Target Recognition Focused on Physical Cues and Neural Activity |
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228 | (1) |
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Amphibian Retinal Ganglion Cell Axons Regenerate to Reestablish Neural Connections |
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228 | (2) |
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Retinotectal Maps Are Found in Normal and Experimental Conditions |
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230 | (1) |
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Some Experimental Evidence Contradicts the Chemoaffinity Hypothesis |
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231 | (1) |
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A "Stripe Assay" Reveals Growth Preferences for Temporal Retinal Axons |
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232 | (2) |
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Retinotectal Chemoaffinity Cues Are Finally Identified in the 1990s |
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234 | (3) |
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Eph/Ephrin Signaling Proves to Be More Complex Than Originally Thought |
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237 | (1) |
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Axonal Self-Avoidance as a Mechanism for Chemoaffinity |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Neuronal Survival and Programmed Cell Death |
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241 | (34) |
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Growth Factors Regulate Neuronal Survival |
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242 | (1) |
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The Death of Nerve Cells Was Not Initially Recognized as a Normal Developmental Event |
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242 | (1) |
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Studies Reveal That Target Tissue Size Affects the Number of Neurons That Survive |
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242 | (1) |
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Some Tumor Tissues Mimic the Effect of Extra Limb Buds on Nerve Fiber Growth |
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243 | (2) |
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In Vitro Studies Led to a Bioassay Method to Study Nerve Growth Factors |
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245 | (1) |
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The Factor Released by Sarcoma 180 Is Found to Be a Protein |
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245 | (2) |
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Nerve Growth Factor Is Identified in Salivary Glands |
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247 | (1) |
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Studies of NGF Lead to the Discovery of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor |
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248 | (2) |
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Discoveries of Other NGF-Related Growth Factors Rapidly Followed |
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250 | (1) |
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Ngf Signaling Mechanisms And Neurotrophin Receptors |
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251 | (1) |
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NGF Is Transported from the Nerve Terminal to the Cell Body |
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251 | (1) |
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NGF Receptors Are First Identified in the PC 12 Cell Line |
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252 | (3) |
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Activation of Trk Receptors Stimulates Multiple Intracellular Signaling Pathways |
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255 | (2) |
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Full-Length Trk Receptors Interact with Truncated Trk Receptors and p75NTR to Influence Cell Survival |
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257 | (1) |
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Other Growth Factors Also Regulate Neuronal Survival and Outgrowth |
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258 | (1) |
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Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor Is Isolated Based on an Assay for Developing Ciliary Ganglion Neurons |
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259 | (1) |
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The CNTF Receptor Requires Multiple Components to Function |
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260 | (1) |
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Growth Factors Unrelated to CNTF Promote Survival of Developing CG and Motor Neurons |
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260 | (1) |
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Programmed Cell Death During Neural Development |
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261 | (3) |
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Studies Reveal Cell Death Is an Active Process Dependent on Protein Synthesis |
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264 | (1) |
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Cell Death Genes Are Identified in C. Elegans |
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264 | (2) |
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Homologs of the C. Elegans Ced and Egi Genes Contribute to the Mammalian Apoptotic Pathway |
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266 | (1) |
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P75Ntr and Precursor Forms of Neurotrophins Help Mediate Neuronal Death during Development |
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267 | (4) |
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271 | (1) |
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272 | (3) |
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Chapter 9 Synaptic Formation and Reorganization Part I: The Neuromuscular Junction |
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275 | (32) |
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Chemical Synapse Development In The Peripheral And Central Nervous Systems |
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276 | (1) |
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Reciprocal Signaling Leads to the Development of Unique Synaptic Elements in Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Cells |
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277 | (1) |
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The Vertebrate Neuromuscular Junction As A Model For Synapse Formation |
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278 | (1) |
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At the NMJ, the Presynaptic Motor Axon Releases Acetylcholine to Depolarize the Postsynaptic Muscle Cell |
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279 | (1) |
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The Distribution of AChRs Is Mapped in Developing Muscle Fibers |
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280 | (2) |
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The Density of Innervation to Muscle Fibers Changes during Vertebrate Development |
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282 | (1) |
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The Synaptic Basal Lamina Is a Site of NMJ Organizing Signals |
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283 | (2) |
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AChRs Cluster Opposite Presynaptic Nerve Terminals in Response to Agrin Released by Motor Neurons |
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285 | (2) |
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The Agrin Hypothesis Is Revised Based on Additional Observations |
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287 | (1) |
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The Receptor Components MuSK and LRP4 Mediate Agrin Signaling |
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288 | (3) |
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Rapsyn Links AChRs to the Cytoskeleton |
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291 | (1) |
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AChR Subunits Are Synthesized in Nuclei Adjacent to the Nerve Terminal |
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292 | (2) |
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Perisynaptic Schwann Cells Play Roles in NMJ Synapse Formation and Maintenance |
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294 | (1) |
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The Synaptic Basal Lamina Concentrates Laminins Needed for Presynaptic Development and Alignment with Postjunctional Folds |
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295 | (2) |
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Models Of Synaptic Elimination In The Nmj |
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297 | (1) |
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The Relative Levels of Neuromuscular Activity Determine Which Terminal Branches Remain at the Endplate |
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298 | (1) |
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BDNF and Pro-BDNF Are Candidates for the Protective and Punishment Signals |
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298 | (2) |
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Perisynaptic Schwann Cells Influence the Stability of Synaptic Connections |
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300 | (3) |
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303 | (1) |
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304 | (3) |
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Chapter 10 Synaptic Formation and Reorganization Part II: Synapses in the Central Nervous System |
|
|
307 | (28) |
|
Excitatory And Inhibitory Synapses In The Central Nervous System |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
Many Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Elements Are Similar in Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses |
|
|
309 | (2) |
|
The Postsynaptic Density Is an Organelle Found in Excitatory, but Not Inhibitory, Synapses |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
Cell Adhesion Molecules Mediate the Initial Stabilization of Synaptic Contacts |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
Neurexins and Neuroligins Also Induce Formation of Synaptic Elements and Stabilize Synaptic Contacts |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
Reciprocal Signals Regulate Pre- and Postsynaptic Development |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
Dendritic Spines Are Highly Motile and Actively Seek Presynaptic Partners |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
BDNF Influences Dendritic Spine Motility and Synaptogenesis |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Eph/Ephrin Bidirectional Signaling Mediates Presynaptic Development |
|
|
317 | (2) |
|
Eph/Ephrin Signaling Initiates Multiple Intracellular Pathways to Regulate the Formation of Postsynaptic Spine and Shaft Synapses |
|
|
319 | (2) |
|
Wnt Proteins Influence Pre- and Postsynaptic Specializations in the CNS |
|
|
321 | (1) |
|
Different Wnts Regulate Postsynaptic Development at Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
Glial Cells Contribute to CNS Synaptogenesis |
|
|
322 | (2) |
|
Synapse Elimination And Reorganization In The CNS |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
The Vertebrate Visual System Is a Popular Model to Study Synapse Elimination and Reorganization |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
Spontaneous Waves of Retinal Activity Stabilize Selected Synapses in LGN Layers |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
Competition between Neurons Determines Which Synaptic Connections Are Stabilized |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
Early Visual Experience Establishes Ocular Dominance Columns in the Primary Visual Cortex |
|
|
327 | (2) |
|
Homeostatic Plasticity Contributes to Synaptic Activity |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
Intrinsic and Environmental Cues Continue to Influence Synapse Organization at All Ages |
|
|
330 | (5) |
| Summary |
|
335 | (1) |
| Further Reading |
|
335 | (2) |
| Glossary |
|
337 | (12) |
| Index |
|
349 | |
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