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El. knyga: Dietary Sugars: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects

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Dietary sugars are known to have medical implications for humans from causing dental caries to obesity. This book aims to put dietary sugars in context and includes the chemistry of several typical subclasses eg glucose, galactose and maltose. Modern techniques of analysis of the dietary sugars are covered in detail including self monitoring and uses of biosensors. The final section of the book details the function and effects of dietary sugars and includes chapters on obesity, intestinal transport, aging, liver function, diet of young children and intolerance and more. Written by an expert team and delivering high quality information, this book provides a fascinating insight into this area of health and nutritional science. It will bridge scientific disciplines so that the information is more meaningful and applicable to health in general. Part of a series of books, it is specifically designed for chemists, analytical scientists, forensic scientists, food scientists, dieticians and health care workers, nutritionists, toxicologists and research academics. Due to its interdisciplinary nature it could also be suitable for lecturers and teachers in food and nutritional sciences and as a college or university library reference guide.


Dietary sugars are known to have medical implications for humans. Written by an expert team and delivering high quality information, this book provides a fascinating insight into this area of health and nutritional science.
Chapter 1 Sugars in Honey
3(13)
Sevgi Kolayli
Laid Boukraa
Huseyin Sahin
Fatiha Abdellah
1.1 Introduction
3(1)
1.2 Main Sugars
4(4)
1.2.1 Monosaccharides
4(1)
1.2.2 Disaccharides
5(1)
1.2.3 Oligosaccharides
6(2)
1.3 Adulteration of Honey
8(1)
1.4 Crystallization of Honey
8(1)
1.5 Is Honey Sweeter than Sugar?
9(1)
1.6 Honey Sugars and Health
9(7)
1.6.1 Honey and Blood Glucose Level
9(1)
1.6.2 Honey as an Anti-infective Agent
10(1)
1.6.3 Honey as a Prebiotic
10(1)
Summary Points
11(1)
Key Facts
12(1)
Definition of Words and Terms
12(1)
List of Abbreviations
13(1)
References
13(3)
Chapter 2 Sugars and Dental Caries
16(14)
Anna Haukioja
Merja Laine
2.1 Dental Caries
16(2)
2.1.1 Dental Caries and Erosion
16(1)
2.1.2 Dental Plaque in Caries
17(1)
2.1.3 Saliva Protects Oral Tissues
18(1)
Food and Nutritional Components in Focus No. 3
Dietary Sugars: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects
Victor R Preedy
© The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
2.2 The Influence of Sugars in Diet on Caries Risk
18(2)
2.3 The Relation between Different Sugars and Dental Health
20(10)
2.3.1 Sugar Polymers
20(1)
2.3.2 Disaccharides
21(3)
2.3.3 Monosaccharides
24(1)
2.3.4 Sugar Alcohols
24(1)
Summary Points
25(1)
Key Facts
26(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
26(1)
References
27(3)
Chapter 3 Whole Body Glucose Metabolism
30(18)
Jørgen Jensen
Jesper Franch
3.1 Introduction
30(1)
3.2 Glucose Transport
31(3)
3.2.1 Glucose Transporters
32(2)
3.3 Metabolism of Glucose
34(3)
3.3.1 Glycogen Synthesis
34(1)
3.3.2 Glycolysis
35(2)
3.3.3 Alternative Routes of Glucose Metabolism
37(1)
3.4 Glucose and the Mitochondria
37(1)
3.4.1 The Krebs Cycle
37(1)
3.4.2 De Novo Lipid Synthesis
38(1)
3.5 Regulation of Whole Body Glucose Metabolism
38(10)
3.5.1 Glucose Metabolism after Meals
39(1)
3.5.2 Glucose Metabolism in the Post-absorptive Phase
39(1)
3.5.3 Glucose Metabolism During Exercise
39(1)
3.5.4 Type 2 Diabetes
40(2)
Summary Points
42(1)
Key Facts
43(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
44(1)
Acknowledgements
45(1)
References
45(3)
Chapter 4 Medical Implications of Dietary Simple Sugars and Complex Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load
48(29)
Mary Downes Gastrich
Michelle Wien
4.1 Introduction
48(1)
4.2 Purpose of this Review
49(1)
4.3 Results
50(1)
4.4 The Relationship Between the Quality and Quantity of Dietary CHO and Differing Medical Implications
50(16)
4.4.1 Dietary CHO and Metabolic Syndrome/CVD Risk Factors
50(15)
4.4.2 Dietary CHO and T2DM/Insulin Resistance
65(1)
4.4.3 Dietary CHO and Cancer Risks
65(1)
4.4.4 Dietary CHOs and Other Medical Conditions
66(1)
4.5 Gender Differences in Trials of the Effects of Dietary CHO and Various Medical Implications
66(2)
4.5.1 Trends in Gender Differences in Dietary CHO and Metabolic Syndrome and CVD
66(1)
4.5.2 Trends in Gender Differences in Dietary CHO and Insulin Resistance/T2DM
66(1)
4.5.3 Trends in Gender Differences in Dietary CHO and Cancers
67(1)
4.5.4 Trends in Gender Differences in Dietary CHO and Other Medical Conditions
67(1)
4.6 Conclusions
68(1)
4.7 Discussion
68(9)
Summary Points
69(1)
Key Facts
70(1)
Definitions
70(1)
List of Abbreviations
71(1)
References
71(6)
Chemistry and Biochemistry
Chapter 5 Glucose Chemistry
77(9)
Bilal Ahmad Malik
Mohammed Benaissa
5.1 Introduction
77(2)
5.2 Structure
79(1)
5.3 Chemical Reactions with Glucose
80(2)
5.4 The Configuration of Glucose
82(1)
5.5 Mutarotation of Glucose
83(3)
Summary Points
83(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
84(1)
List of Abbreviations
84(1)
References
85(1)
Chapter 6 Galactose Chemistry
86(15)
Fabio Vieira dos Santos
Vanessa Jaqueline da Silva Vieira dos Santos
Juliana Pereira Lyon
Leonardo Marmo Moreira
6.1 Introduction
86(2)
6.2 Chemical Classification of D-Galactose
88(3)
6.3 Chemical Reactions with D-Galactose
91(5)
6.3.1 Galactoside Formation
91(1)
6.3.2 Ether Formation
92(1)
6.3.3 Ester Formation
92(1)
6.3.4 Cyclic Ketal Formation
93(1)
6.3.5 Oxidation
93(2)
6.3.6 Reduction
95(1)
6.4 Lactose: Disaccharide Formation and Hydrolysis
96(5)
Summary Points
97(1)
Key Facts about Galactose and its Importance
97(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
98(1)
List of Abbreviations
99(1)
References
99(2)
Chapter 7 Maltose Chemistry and Biochemistry
101(14)
Robert R. Crow
Sanath Kumar
Manuel F. Varela
7.1 Introduction
101(1)
7.2 The Metabolism of Maltose
101(4)
7.2.1 Maltose and Glycolysis
103(1)
7.2.2 Enzymes Involved in Maltose Metabolism
103(2)
7.3 Maltose Transport Systems
105(2)
7.3.1 Passive Transport and Channels for Maltose
105(1)
7.3.2 Primary Active Transporters for Maltose
105(1)
7.3.3 Secondary Active Transporters for Maltose
106(1)
7.3.4 Group Translocation Transport Systems for Maltose
107(1)
7.4 Mutations that Confer Maltose Transport in other Sugar Transporters
107(8)
7.4.1 The Lactose Permease of E. coli and Maltose
108(1)
7.4.2 The Melibiose Permease of Enterobacter cloacae and Maltose
109(1)
7.4.3 The Raffinose Permease of E. coli and Maltose
109(1)
Summary Points
110(1)
Key Facts of Maltose Chemistry and Biochemistry
110(1)
Definition of Words and Terms
111(1)
List of Abbreviations
111(1)
References
112(3)
Chapter 8 Fructose Chemistry
115(23)
David J. Timson
8.1 Introduction: Structure and Stereochemistry
115(2)
8.2 Chemical Reactions of Fructose
117(2)
8.2.1 Oxidation and Reduction
118(1)
8.2.2 Modifications of the Hydroxyl Groups: Acetylation and Methylation
118(1)
8.3 Key Metabolic Reactions Involving Fructose
119(5)
8.3.1 Phosphorylation of Fructose Catalysed by Fructokinase
120(2)
8.3.2 Further Metabolism of Fructose by the Fructokinase Pathway
122(1)
8.3.3 Phosphorylation of Fructose Catalysed by Hexokinase
123(1)
8.4 The Synthesis of Fructose
124(1)
8.4.1 Chemical Synthesis of Fructose
124(1)
8.4.2 Biosynthesis of Fructose
125(1)
8.5 Non-enzymatic Biochemical Reactions of Fructose
125(2)
8.5.1 Glycation and the Maillard Reaction
125(2)
8.6 Di- and Polysaccharide Synthesis Involving Fructose
127(2)
8.6.1 Non-enzymatic Synthesis
127(1)
8.6.2 Biosynthesis of Sucrose
127(1)
8.6.3 Biosynthesis of Inulin
128(1)
8.7 Degradation of Polysaccharides Containing Fructose Residues
129(4)
8.7.1 Non-enzymatic Hydrolysis
130(1)
8.7.2 The Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sucrose: The Invertase Reaction
131(1)
8.7.3 Enzymatic Degradation of Inulin
132(1)
8.8 Conclusions
133(5)
Summary Points
133(1)
Key Facts
133(1)
Definitions
134(1)
List of Abbreviations
135(1)
References
135(3)
Chapter 9 Sucrose Chemistry
138(12)
Leonardo M. Moreira
Juliana P. Lyon
Patricia Lima
Vanessa J. S. V. Santos
Fabio V. Santos
9.1 Introduction
138(2)
9.1.1 General Features of Carbohydrates
139(1)
9.1.2 Carbohydrates as an Energy Source
139(1)
9.2 Sucrose
140(3)
9.2.1 Sucrose Monosaccharides
141(2)
9.3 Sucrose as a Sweetener
143(1)
9.4 Sucrose Synthesis and Metabolism
144(1)
9.5 Inverted Sugar
144(1)
9.6 Biological Functions of Sucrose
145(1)
9.7 Conclusions
146(4)
Summary Points
146(1)
Key Facts
146(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
147(1)
List of Abbreviations
148(1)
References
148(2)
Chapter 10 Lactose Chemistry
150(17)
Lee D. Hansen
Jennifer B. Nielson
10.1 Introduction
150(1)
10.2 Crystal Structures and Properties
151(2)
10.3 Reactions of Lactose
153(6)
10.3.1 Hydrolysis and Transglycosylation
153(2)
10.3.2 Isomerization
155(1)
10.3.3 Maillard Reaction
156(3)
10.3.4 Fermentation
159(1)
10.4 Disposal
159(8)
Summary Points
160(1)
Key Facts
160(1)
Definition of Words and Terms
161(1)
List of Abbreviations
161(1)
References
162(5)
Analysis
Chapter 11 Characterization of Sugars, Cyclitols and Galactosyl Cyclitols in Seeds by GC
167(19)
Ralph L. Obendorf
Marcin Horbowicz
Leslaw Bernard Lahuta
11.1 Introduction
167(1)
11.2 Water-soluble Carbohydrates in Seeds
168(9)
11.2.1 Extraction of Water-soluble Carbohydrates from Seeds
173(3)
11.2.2 Natural Sources of Standards not Commercially Available
176(1)
11.2.3 Identification of Compounds Forming Unknown Peaks
177(1)
11.3 GC Analysis of Water-soluble Carbohydrates
177(1)
11.4 Species Differences in Water-soluble Carbohydrates
178(2)
11.5 Conclusions
180(6)
Summary Points
181(1)
Key Facts
181(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
182(1)
List of Abbreviations
183(1)
References
183(3)
Chapter 12 Dietary Sugars: TLC Screening of Sugars in Urine and Blood Samples
186(22)
Jose Ramon Alonso-Fernandez
Vinood B. Patel
12.1 Introduction
186(1)
12.2 Forerunners of TLC Methods
187(2)
12.3 Early TLC Methods
189(1)
12.4 Galactosaemia Studies
190(1)
12.5 Oligosaccharides
191(2)
12.6 A TLC Procedure for Screening for Sugars in Blood and Urine
193(15)
12.6.1 Sample Collection
193(1)
12.6.2 Concentration of Samples
194(1)
12.6.3 Loading Samples onto the TLC Plate
195(1)
12.6.4 The TLC Cell
196(1)
12.6.5 Procedure
196(2)
12.6.6 Differential Diagnosis of Galactosaemias
198(5)
Summary Points
203(1)
Key Facts
203(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
204(1)
List of Abbreviations
204(1)
Acknowledgements
205(1)
References
205(3)
Chapter 13 Analysis of Dietary Sugars in Beverages by Gas Chromatography
208(21)
O. Hernandez-Hernandez
F.J. Moreno
M.L. Sanz
13.1 Introduction
208(2)
13.2 Beer
210(4)
13.2.1 Determination of Monomeric Composition
211(1)
13.2.2 Determination of Glycosidic-Linkages of Arabinoxylans
211(3)
13.3 Wines
214(4)
13.3.1 Low Molecular Weight Carbohydrates (LMWC)
214(2)
13.3.2 Polysaccharides
216(2)
13.4 Spirit Drinks
218(1)
13.5 Juices
219(1)
13.6 Soft Drinks
220(2)
13.7 Hot Drinks
222(1)
13.8 Conclusions
222(7)
Summary Points
223(1)
Key Facts
223(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
224(2)
Abbreviations
226(1)
References
226(3)
Chapter 14 UV Spectrophotometry Method for Dietary Sugars
229(20)
Ana C. A. Veloso
Ligia R. Rodrigues
Luis G. Dias
Antonio M. Peres
14.1 Introduction
229(1)
14.2 Dietary Sugars
230(4)
14.2.1 Physicochemical Properties
231(1)
14.2.2 Physiological Effects
232(1)
14.2.3 Methodology for Dietary Carbohydrates Analysis
232(2)
14.3 UV-Vis Spectophotometric Methods for Dietary Sugars
234(11)
14.3.1 Derivative Spectroscopy and Chemometric Analysis
234(4)
14.3.2 UV-Vis Spectrophotometry for Indirect Sugar Analysis
238(1)
14.3.3 UV Spectrophotometry for Direct Sugar Analysis in Controlled Multicomponent Samples
239(6)
14.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
245(4)
Summary Points
245(1)
Key Facts
245(1)
Definitions of Key Terms
246(1)
List of Abbreviations
246(1)
References
246(3)
Chapter 15 Extraction and Quantification of Sugars and Fructans from Vegetable Matter
249(20)
Katherine Cools
Leon A. Terry
15.1 Introduction
249(4)
15.1.1 Structure of Sugars and Fructans
249(1)
15.1.2 Biosynthesis
250(2)
15.1.3 Distribution of Sugars and Fructans
252(1)
15.1.4 Sugar and Fructan Measurement
253(1)
15.2 Sugar and Fructan Extraction
253(6)
15.3 Quantification
259(3)
15.3.1 Quantification of Total Sugars and Fructans
259(1)
15.3.2 Quantification using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography
260(1)
15.3.3 Quantification using Anion Exchange Chromatography
260(1)
15.3.4 Gas Chromatography
261(1)
15.3.5 Detectors
261(1)
15.4 Conclusions
262(7)
Summary Points
262(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
263(1)
Key Facts of High Pressure Liquid Chromatography
263(1)
Abbreviations
263(1)
References
264(5)
Chapter 16 Determination of Dietary Sugars by Ion Chromatography and Electrochemical Detection: a Focus on Galactose, Glucose, Fructose and Sucrose
269(17)
Donatella Nardiello
Carmen Palermo
Maurizio Quinto
Diego Centonze
16.1 Analysis of Carbohydrates: Historical Background
269(1)
16.2 Analysis of Carbohydrates by Ion Chromatography and Electrochemical Detection
270(16)
16.2.1 Chromatographic Separation of Galactose, Glucose, Fructose and Sucrose by HPAEC
270(2)
16.2.2 Pulsed Amperometric Detection: Triple Step PAD Waveform for Galactose, Glucose, Fructose and Sucrose
272(3)
16.2.3 Constant Potential Amperometric Detection of Carbohydrates at Modified Electrodes
275(5)
Summary Points
280(1)
Key Facts of the Analytical Methods for the Determination of Carbohydrates
281(1)
Key Facts of Anion Exchange Chromatography Separations of Carbohydrates
281(1)
Key Facts of the Electrochemical Detection of Carbohydrates
281(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
282(1)
List of Abbreviations
283(1)
References
283(3)
Chapter 17 Assay of Glucose Using Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy
286(21)
Mohammed Benaissa
Amneh Mbaideen
Bilal Ahmad Malik
17.1 Introduction
286(2)
17.2 Beer Lambert's Law
288(1)
17.3 Multivariate Calibration Methods
288(6)
17.3.1 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR)
289(1)
17.3.2 Principle Component Analysis (PCA)
290(1)
17.3.3 Principal Component Regression (PCR)
291(1)
17.3.4 Partial Least Square Regression (PLS)
292(2)
17.3.5 Performance Comparison
294(1)
17.4 Pre-processing Techniques
294(7)
17.4.1 Mean Centering of a Data Matrix
295(1)
17.4.2 Smoothing
296(2)
17.4.3 Derivative
298(2)
17.4.4 Digital Bandpass Filtering (DBPF)
300(1)
17.5 The Potential of Advanced Digital Signal Processing Techniques
301(1)
17.6 Examples of Application of NIR Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Glucose in Food Items
301(1)
17.7 Conclusion
302(5)
Summary Points
302(1)
Key Facts about NIR Spectroscopy
303(1)
Definitions
303(1)
List of Abbreviations
304(1)
References
304(3)
Chapter 18 A New Liquid Chromatographic-Mass Spectrometric Method to Assess Glucose Kinetics In Vivo Using 13C6 D-glucose as a Tracer
307(16)
David S. Millington
Haoyue Zhang
Cris A. Slentz
William E. Kraus
18.1 Background
307(2)
18.2 Summary of Procedures and Methods
309(2)
18.2.1 The Labeled IVGTT Protocol
309(1)
18.2.2 The HGO Infusion Protocol
309(1)
18.2.3 Sample Preparation and Analysis by Mass Spectrometry
309(1)
18.2.4 IVGTT: Estimation of 13C6 Glucose Concentration
310(1)
18.2.5 HGO: Estimation of Fasting HGO
311(1)
18.3 Results
311(4)
18.3.1 IVGTT Results
311(3)
18.3.2 HGO Results
314(1)
18.4 Discussion and Future Direction
315(8)
Summary Points
317(1)
Key Facts of Glucose Metabolism
317(1)
Key Facts of Liquid Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry
318(1)
Definitions and Explanations of Key Terms
318(2)
List of Abbreviations
320(1)
Acknowledgements
320(1)
References
320(3)
Chapter 19 Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose (SMBG)
323(17)
Tomomi Fujisawa
19.1 Background
323(1)
19.2 Blood Samples/Skin Puncture Site
324(1)
19.3 Monitoring Device and Strips
324(3)
19.3.1 Glucose Readings Monitored by SMBG
325(1)
19.3.2 Accuracy of SMBG Results
325(1)
19.3.3 Enzyme/co-enzyme and Clinical Attention to SMBG
326(1)
19.4 Puncture Device and Lancets/Needles for SMBG
327(1)
19.5 Choice of SMBG Systems
327(1)
19.6 Procedures for SMBG
328(1)
19.7 Clinical Significance of SMBG
329(6)
19.7.1 Clinical Benefit of SMBG in Glycemic Control in Insulin-treated Subjects
329(1)
19.7.2 Clinical Benefit of SMBG on Glycemic Control in Non-insulin-treated Subjects
330(4)
19.7.3 Cost-effectiveness of SMBG
334(1)
19.7.4 Effects of SMBG on Psychological Distress
335(1)
19.8 Future Perspectives of SMBG
335(5)
Summary Points
336(1)
Key Facts of Self Monitoring of Blood Glucose (SMBG)
337(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
337(1)
List of Abbreviations
338(1)
References
338(2)
Chapter 20 The Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Assay for Glucose
340(18)
Mary Beth Hall
20.1 Introduction
340(1)
20.2 Chemistry
341(1)
20.3 Factors Affecting Method Performance
341(9)
20.3.1 Volumetric Additions and Precision
342(1)
20.3.2 Adherence to Protocol
342(1)
20.3.3 Enzyme Activity and Purity
342(1)
20.3.4 Stability of Absorbance
343(1)
20.3.5 Nonlinear Equation Describes Standard Curve
343(5)
20.3.6 Interference
348(2)
20.4 A Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Method for Glucose Determination
350(5)
20.4.1 Preparation of and Considerations on Use of Glucose Standard Solutions
350(4)
20.4.2 Preparation of a Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Reagent
354(1)
20.4.3 Determination of Standard Curve and Glucose Content of Test Samples
354(1)
20.5 Conclusion
355(3)
Summary Points on Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Assays for Glucose
355(1)
Key Facts about Glucose Oxidase-Peroxidase Assays for Glucose
356(1)
Definitions
356(1)
Abbreviations
356(1)
References
356(2)
Chapter 21 Glucose Biosensors
358(18)
Azila Abdul-Aziz
21.1 Introduction
358(1)
21.2 Requirements for Glucose Analysis in Food
359(2)
21.3 Glucose Transduction Technologies
361(8)
21.3.1 Electrochemical Glucose Biosensors
361(4)
21.3.2 Optical Glucose Biosensors
365(2)
21.3.3 Instrumentation
367(2)
21.4 Commercialization Activities
369(1)
21.5 Concluding Remarks
370(6)
Summary Points
371(1)
Key Facts
371(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
372(1)
List of Abbreviations
373(1)
References
373(3)
Chapter 22 Assay Galactose by Biosensors
376(19)
Martin Ming-fat Choi
Han-chih Hencher Lee
22.1 General Review of Biosensors
376(1)
22.2 Types of Biosensors
377(3)
22.2.1 Transducers: Electrochemical and Optical
377(1)
22.2.2 Enzyme Immobilization Techniques
378(2)
22.3 Development of Galactose Biosensors
380(7)
22.3.1 Principles
381(1)
22.3.2 Methodology
382(4)
22.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
386(1)
22.4 Applications of Biosensors in Galactose Assay
387(1)
22.5 Conclusion
388(1)
22.6 Future Trends
388(7)
Summary Points
389(1)
Key Facts
389(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
390(1)
References
390(5)
Chapter 23 Combined Assays for Lactose and Galactose by Enzymatic Reactions
395(10)
Nissim Silanikove
Fira Shapiro
23.1 Introduction
395(1)
23.2 Methodology for the Determination of Lactose and Galactose
396(1)
23.3 Principles of the Simultaneous Determination of Lactose and Galactose in Dairy Products by Enzymatic Reactions
396(2)
23.4 Simplification of the Colorimetric Assay by Replacing NAD with Thio-NAD
398(1)
23.5 The Challenge of Quantifying Metabolites in Milk and Dairy Products
398(1)
23.6 Fluorometry Coupling to Formation of Chromophore and Enzymatic Cycling as a Solution for the Determination of Lactose and Galactose in Milk and Dairy Products
399(2)
23.7 Conclusions
401(4)
Summary Points
402(1)
Key Facts
402(1)
References
403(2)
Chapter 24 Food Sources and Analytical Approaches for Maltose Determination
405(20)
Elvira M. S. M. Gaspar
Joao F. Lopes
Daniel Gyamfi
Ines S. Nunes
24.1 Introduction
405(1)
24.2 Food Carbohydrates
406(7)
24.2.1 Relevance of Dietary Carbohydrates and Food Sugars
408(2)
24.2.2 Maltose
410(1)
24.2.3 Food Sources
410(1)
24.2.4 Metabolism and Effects
411(2)
24.3 Analytical Approaches
413(6)
24.3.1 Non-chromatographic Methodologies
413(2)
24.3.2 Chromatographic Methodologies
415(4)
24.4 Conclusions
419(6)
Summary Points
420(1)
Key Facts of Maltose as a Dietary Carbohydrate
420(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
421(1)
List of Abbreviations
421(1)
Acknowledgements
422(1)
References
422(3)
Chapter 25 Determination of Maltose in Food Samples by High-temperature Liquid Chromatography Coupled to ICP-AES
425(18)
Amanda Terol
Soledad Prats
Salvador Maestre
Jose Luis Todoli
25.1 Maltose Chemical Properties and their Importance in the Food Industry
425(1)
25.2 Analytical Methods for the Determination of Maltose in Food Samples
426(1)
25.2.1 Sample Preparation
426(1)
25.2.2 Determination of Maltose in Food Samples
426(1)
25.3 What is High-temperature Liquid Chromatography?
427(5)
25.3.1 General Advantages and Characteristics of HTLC
428(1)
25.3.2 Special Instrumentation
428(4)
25.4 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry for the Determination of Sugars in Food
432(2)
25.5 HTLC-ICP Hyphenation
434(2)
25.6 Comparison of HTLC-ICP-AES Hyphenation with the Techniques Commonly used for the Determination of Maltose
436(1)
25.7 Conclusion
437(6)
Summary Points
437(1)
Key Facts of Maltose in Beer
438(1)
Definition of Words and Terms
438(1)
List of Abbreviations
439(1)
Acknowledgement
439(1)
References
439(4)
Chapter 26 Analysis of Maltose and Lactose by U-HPLC-ESI-MS/MS
443(21)
Luca Valgimigli
Simone Gabbanini
Riccardo Matera
26.1 Introduction
443(2)
26.2 Method Description and Discussion
445(12)
26.2.1 Chromatography
445(6)
26.2.2 Mass Spectrometry
451(6)
26.2.3 Method Validation
457(1)
26.3 Applications
457(1)
26.3.1 Analysis of Nutraceutical Preparations
457(1)
26.3.2 Analysis of Food Products
458(1)
26.4 Conclusions
458(6)
Summary Points
458(1)
Key Facts of HPLC and U-HPLC
459(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
459(1)
List of Abbreviations
460(1)
References
461(3)
Chapter 27 Assays of Fructose in Experimental Nutrition
464(20)
Keiichiro Sugimoto
Hiroshi Inui
Toshikazu Yamanouchi
27.1 Introduction
464(1)
27.2 Physiological Significance
465(1)
27.3 Sample Treatment
466(1)
27.4 Determination of Fructose Concentration
467(8)
27.4.1 Chemical Method
467(1)
27.4.2 Enzymatic Method
467(2)
27.4.3 HPLC Methods
469(4)
27.4.4 GC/MS Methods
473(2)
27.5 Applications
475(9)
27.5.1 Sucrose Tolerance Test in Rats
475(1)
27.5.2 Fructose Tolerance Test in Mice
476(1)
27.5.3 Sucrose Tolerance Test in Humans
476(1)
27.5.4 Evaluation of Inhibitive Activity on Fructose Absorption in the Caco-2 Cell Line
477(1)
Summary Points
478(1)
Key Facts of Diabetes and Blood Fructose Levels
479(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
479(1)
List of Abbreviations
480(1)
References
481(3)
Chapter 28 Amperometric Detection for Simultaneous Assays of Glucose and Fructose
484(19)
Mithran Somasundrum
Werasak Surareungchai
28.1 Introduction
484(1)
28.2 Principles of Voltammetry
485(1)
28.3 Experimental Details
486(2)
28.3.1 Electrochemical Cells
486(1)
28.3.2 Electrodes
487(1)
28.3.3 Electrolyte
488(1)
28.4 Types of Voltammetry
488(4)
28.4.1 Fixed Potential --- Potential Step
488(1)
28.4.2 Fixed Potential --- Amperometry
489(2)
28.4.3 Potential Ramp
491(1)
28.5 Passivation in Voltammetry
492(1)
28.6 Electrochemistry of Glucose and Fructose
492(2)
28.7 Pulsed Amperometric Detection (PAD)
494(2)
28.8 Simultaneous Detection of Glucose and Fructose
496(7)
Summary Points
497(1)
Key Facts of Voltammetry
498(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
499(1)
List of Abbreviations
499(1)
Acknowledgements
500(1)
References
501(2)
Chapter 29 Sucrose Determination by Raman Spectroscopy
503(23)
Leonardo M. Moreira
Fabio V. Santos
Juliana P. Lyon
Patricia Lima
Vanessa J. S. V. Santos
Pedro C. G. de Moraes
Jose Paulo R. F. Mendonca
Valmar C. Barbosa
Carlos J. de Lima
Fabricio L. Silveira
Landulfo Silveira Jr.
29.1 Introduction
503(2)
29.2 Vibrational Spectroscopy
505(14)
29.2.1 Raman Spectroscopy
506(1)
29.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy Applied to the Characterisation of Foods and Drugs in Biological Systems
507(3)
29.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy Applied to the Characterisation of Saccharides
510(5)
29.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy Applied to the Characterisation of Sucrose
515(2)
29.2.5 Quantitative Analysis of Sucrose by Raman Spectroscopy
517(1)
29.2.6 Physico-Chemical Analysis of Sucrose by Raman Spectroscopy
518(1)
29.3 Conclusions
519(7)
Summary Points
520(1)
Key Facts of Raman Spectroscopy
520(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
520(1)
List of Abbreviations
521(1)
References
522(4)
Chapter 30 Analysis of Sucrose from Sugar Beet
526(23)
J. Mitchell McGrath
Karen K. Fugate
30.1 Introduction
526(3)
30.2 Extraction for Measurement
529(1)
30.3 Analytical Methods
529(10)
30.3.1 Historical Perspective
529(1)
30.3.2 Refractometry
530(1)
30.3.3 Polarimetry
531(1)
30.3.4 Enzyme-based Spectroscopic Assays
532(2)
30.3.5 Gas Chromatography (GC)
534(1)
30.3.6 High-performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
534(1)
30.3.7 Near-infrared Spectroscopy (NIR)
535(2)
30.3.8 Other Methods
537(2)
30.4 Future Trends
539(10)
Summary Points
539(1)
Key Facts
540(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
541(1)
List of Abbreviations
542(1)
Acknowledgements
542(1)
References
543(6)
Function and Effects
Chapter 31 Lactose in Milk and Dairy Products: A Focus on Biosensors
549(21)
Felipe Conzuelo
A. Julio Reviejo
Jose M. Pingarron
31.1 Introduction
549(1)
31.2 Lactose Analysis
550(14)
31.2.1 Enzyme Reactions Involved in Lactose Determination
550(2)
31.2.2 Biosensors for Lactose Determination
552(12)
31.3 Concluding Remarks
564(6)
Summary Points
564(1)
Key Facts
565(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
565(1)
List of Abbreviations
566(1)
References
567(3)
Chapter 32 Analysis of Human Milk Lactose
570(19)
David S. Newburg
Ceng Chen
Gherman Wiederschain
32.1 Introduction
570(3)
32.1.1 Biological Importance of Lactose Analysis in Human Milk
570(2)
32.1.2 Techniques for Lactose Analysis in Human Milk
572(1)
32.2 Methods of Analysis
573(11)
32.2.1 Gravimetric and Chemical
573(1)
32.2.2 Enzymatic
574(2)
32.2.3 Infrared Analysis
576(1)
32.2.4 HPLC
577(7)
32.3 Conclusions
584(5)
Summary Points
585(1)
Key Facts
585(1)
Definition of Words and Terms
585(1)
List of Abbreviations
586(1)
References
586(3)
Chapter 33 Sweetened Beverages and Added Sugars in Obesity
589(16)
Odilia I. Bermudez
33.1 Introduction
589(1)
33.2 Simple Sugars as Dietary Components
590(1)
33.3 Sugar-sweetened Beverages
591(1)
33.3.1 Sugar-sweetened Beverages
591(1)
33.4 Trends in the Intake of Sweetened Beverages
592(1)
33.5 Obesity as a World Epidemic
592(5)
33.5.1 Concepts and Definitions of Obesity
592(2)
33.5.2 The Worldwide Epidemic of Obesity
594(3)
33.6 Sweetened Beverages and Added Sugars and Obesity
597(2)
33.7 Final Remarks and Future Perspectives
599(6)
Summary Points
600(1)
Key Facts of Obesity and Intake of Sugar Sweetened Beverages
600(1)
Key Facts of the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
601(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
601(1)
List of Abbreviations
602(1)
References
602(3)
Chapter 34 Maternal Glucose and Offspring Child BMI
605(14)
Andrea Deierlein
34.1 Introduction
605(1)
34.2 Anthropometric Outcomes in Early Infancy
606(1)
34.3 Anthropometric Outcomes in Early Childhood
607(3)
34.3.1 Anthropometric Outcomes at 1--2 Years
607(1)
34.3.2 Anthropometric Outcomes in Early Childhood
608(1)
34.3.3 Other Outcomes in Childhood
609(1)
34.4 Limitations of Studies and Gaps in our Understanding
610(9)
34.4.1 Role of Maternal Prepregnancy Obesity
610(1)
34.4.2 Measurement of Offspring Anthropometric Outcomes
611(1)
34.4.3 Assessment of Abnormal Glucose Tolerance
612(1)
Summary Points
612(1)
Key Facts of Screening for GDM
613(1)
Key Facts of Diet and GDM
614(1)
Definitions of Word and Terms
614(1)
List of Abbreviations
615(1)
References
615(4)
Chapter 35 Dextrose in Total Parenteral Nutrition
619(16)
Karen C. McCowen
35.1 Introduction
619(1)
35.2 Metabolic Response to Injury
620(1)
35.3 Route of Feeding in ICU Patients -- TPN Versus Enteral
621(3)
35.4 Hyperglycemia
624(1)
35.4.1 Dextrose Infusion Rates
624(1)
35.4.2 Effects of Hyperglycemia Induced by TPN on Clinical Outcome
624(1)
35.4.3 Effect of Hyperglycemia to Promote Infections
624(1)
35.5 Hyperglycemia-induced Muscle Catabolism
625(3)
35.5.1 Intensive Insulin Therapy in Patients Receiving Nutrition Support in the ICU
625(2)
35.5.2 Glycemic Lability
627(1)
35.5.3 Hypocaloric TPN
627(1)
35.5.4 Insulin in TPN
628(1)
35.6 Complications Associated with Dextrose Infusions in Parenteral Nutrition
628(2)
35.6.1 Liver Dysfunction
628(1)
35.6.2 Respiratory Insufficiency
629(1)
35.6.3 Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency (EFAD)
630(1)
35.6.4 Refeeding Syndrome
630(1)
35.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
630(5)
Summary Points
631(1)
Key Facts
632(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
632(1)
List of Abbreviations
632(1)
References
632(3)
Chapter 36 The Interstinal Transport of Galactase
635(18)
Maria Jesus Rodriguez Yoldi
36.1 Galactose
635(1)
36.2 SGLT1 and GLUT2, D-Galactose Intestinal Transporters
636(4)
36.2.1 Functional Disorders of SGLT1
640(1)
36.3 Factors Involved in Galactose Intestinal Transport
640(13)
36.3.1 Proteins
640(2)
36.3.2 Hormones
642(1)
36.3.3 Stress and Glucocorticoids
642(1)
36.3.4 Diet
643(1)
36.3.5 Heavy Metals
643(1)
36.3.6 Infection
643(4)
Summary Points
647(1)
Key Facts
647(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
648(1)
List of Abbreviations
648(1)
Acknowledgements
649(1)
References
649(4)
Chapter 37 Galactose and Galactose Tracers in Metabolic Studies
653(15)
Ana Francisca Soares
John Griffith Jones
37.1 Overview of Galactose in Nutrition and Health
653(3)
37.1.1 Principal Metabolic Fate of Galactose
654(2)
37.1.2 Minor Metabolic Fates of Galactose: Galactitol and Galactonate
656(1)
37.1.3 Endogenous Galactose Production
656(1)
37.2 Galactose Tracers as Probes of Hepatic Metabolic Fluxes
656(4)
37.2.1 Oxidative and Non-oxidative Disposal of Galactose
657(1)
37.2.2 Galactose Flux into UDPG
657(1)
37.2.3 Measuring UDPG Flux with Galactose Tracers
658(1)
37.2.4 Measuring Transaldolase Exchange Activity with Galactose Tracers
659(1)
37.3 Integration of Galactose and Glucose Metabolic Flux Measurements
660(8)
37.3.1 13C-isotopomer Analysis of Galactose and Glucose Metabolism
660(1)
37.3.2 Galactose and Glucose Metabolism by 2H2O
661(1)
Summary Points
662(1)
Key Facts of Hepatic Galactose Metabolism
663(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
663(1)
List of Abbreviations
664(1)
References
664(4)
Chapter 38 D-Galactose, Dietary Sugars and Modeling Neurological Aging
668(18)
Kodeeswaran Parameshwaran
Michael H. Irwin
Kosta Steliou
Carl A. Pinkert
38.1 Introduction
668(6)
38.1.1 Human Intake of Dietary Sugars
668(1)
38.1.2 Brain Energy Metabolism: Energy Requirements and Glucose Metabolism in Health, Disease, and Aging
669(3)
38.1.3 Mouse Models of Glucose Metabolism and Neurological Aging
672(2)
38.2 D-Galactose
674(2)
38.2.1 D-Galactose as Dietary Sugar and Modifications in Metabolism
674(1)
38.2.2 Chronic D-galactose Administration of Oxidative Stress in Rodents
674(1)
38.2.3 D-Galactose and Neurological Aging
675(1)
38.3 Fructose Metabolism and Brain Aging
676(10)
Summary Points
677(1)
Key Facts
677(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
678(1)
List of Abbreviations
678(1)
References
679(7)
Chapter 39 Maltose Preference: Studies in Outbreed Weanling Rats
686(14)
Yoko Horikawa
Nanaya Tamaki
39.1 Introduction
686(1)
39.2 Maltose Preference with a Single Diet Method
687(1)
39.3 Maltose Preference by Selection from Suc, Glc and Fru with a Two-choice Method
688(3)
39.4 Maltose Preference by Selection from Dex, Mal and Glc with a Three-choice Method
691(1)
39.5 Increased Maltose Preference in Rats Fed a Low-protein Diet
692(1)
39.6 Maltose Preference in Zn-deficient Rats
693(7)
Summary Points
696(1)
Key Facts
696(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
696(1)
List of Abbreviations
697(1)
References
697(3)
Chapter 40 Maltose and Other Sugars in Beer
700(22)
Gines Navarro
Nuria Vela
Simon Navarro
40.1 Introduction
700(1)
40.2 Barley: Taxonomy, Cultivation and Uses
701(4)
40.2.1 Structure of the Barley Grain and Composition
701(4)
40.3 Malting Process and Enzyme Development
705(2)
40.4 Effect of Mashing and Boiling on the Sugar Content
707(1)
40.5 Consumption of Sugars During Primary Fermentation
708(5)
40.6 Factors Affecting Stuck and Sluggish Fermentation
713(2)
40.7 Sugar Content in Finished Beer
715(7)
Summary Points
716(1)
Key Facts
717(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
718(1)
List of Abbreviations
718(1)
References
719(3)
Chapter 41 Fructose Absorption and Enteric Metabolism
722(13)
Kate Witkowska
Chris Cheeseman
41.1 Sources of Fructose in the Human Diet
722(1)
41.2 Intestinal Absorption Mechanisms
722(13)
41.2.1 Site of Fructose Absorption
722(1)
41.2.2 Absorption of Free Fructose
723(1)
41.2.3 GLUT5 (SLC2A5)
724(1)
41.2.4 GLUT2
724(1)
41.2.5 Putative Fructose Transporters
724(1)
41.2.6 Intestinal Metabolism of Fructose
725(1)
41.2.7 Release of Fructose and Metabolites into the Circulation
725(1)
41.2.8 Regulation of Fructose Uptake During a Meal
725(1)
41.2.9 Adaptation to Altered Dietary Intake of Hexoses
726(1)
41.2.10 Fructose Malabsorption and Development
727(2)
Summary Points
729(1)
Key Facts of Fructose Absorption and Enteric Metabolism
729(1)
Definition of Words and Terms
729(2)
List of Abbreviations
731(1)
References
731(4)
Chapter 42 Fructose and the Metabolic Syndrome
735(16)
Ray Zhang
Manal Abdelmalek
42.1 Introduction
735(2)
42.2 Metabolic Effects of Fructose
737(6)
42.2.1 Fructose, Weight Gain and Obesity
737(2)
42.2.2 Fructose and Insulin Resistance
739(1)
42.2.3 Fructose and Diabetes Mellitus
740(1)
42.2.4 Fructose and Serum Lipids
740(1)
42.2.5 Fructose and Uric Acid
741(1)
42.2.6 Fructose and Hypertension
742(1)
42.2.7 Fructose and the Metabolic Syndrome
742(1)
42.3 Caveats
743(1)
42.4 Conclusion
743(8)
Summary Points
744(1)
Key Facts
744(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
745(1)
List of Abbreviations
745(1)
References
746(5)
Chapter 43 Fructose and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
751(19)
Flavio Francini
Maria L. Massa
Juan J. Gagliardino
43.1 Introduction
751(1)
43.2 Fructose Metabolism in the Liver
752(2)
43.3 The "Lipid Connection"
754(2)
43.4 Fructose and the Master Transcriptional Regulators of Lipogenesis
756(3)
43.5 Fructose, Hepatic Leptin Resistance and Impaired β-oxidation of Fatty Acids
759(2)
43.6 The "Inflammatory Connection"
761(1)
43.7 Epigenetic Induction of Fructose-related Lipogenesis
762(1)
43.8 Conclusion
762(8)
Summary Points
763(1)
Key Facts of Fructose and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
763(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
764(1)
List of Abbreviations
764(1)
Acknowledgements
765(1)
References
766(4)
Chapter 44 High Sucrose Diet and Antioxidant Defense
770(19)
Kamal A. Amin
G. M. Safwat
Rajaventhan Srirajaskanthan
44.1 Introduction
770(13)
44.1.1 Overview of Sucrose
770(2)
44.1.2 Sucrose Function, Oxidant/Antioxidant Qualities and its Body Health Effects
772(3)
44.1.3 High Sucrose Diet, Antioxidant and Oxidative Stress Marker
775(8)
44.2 Conclusion
783(6)
Summary Points
784(1)
Key Facts
785(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
785(1)
List of Abbreviations
786(1)
References
786(3)
Chapter 45 Sugars in the Diet of Young Children
789(17)
Erkkola Maijaliisa
Ruottinen Soile
Virtanen Suvim
45.1 Introduction
789(1)
45.2 Dietary Guidelines and Assessment of Intake
790(2)
45.2.1 Dietary Guidelines for Sugar Intake
790(1)
45.2.2 Dietary Assessment of Sugar Intake in Children
791(1)
45.3 Sugar Sources and Intake in Children
792(5)
45.3.1 Dietary Sources of Sugars
792(1)
45.3.2 Sugar Intake in Children
793(3)
45.3.3 Socioeconomic Determinants of Sugar Intake in Children
796(1)
45.4 Sugar Intake and Quality of Diet
797(1)
45.5 Associations Between Sugar Intake and Health in Children
798(8)
Summary Points
799(1)
Key Facts of Sugars in the Diet of Young Children
800(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
800(1)
List of Abbreviations
800(1)
References
801(5)
Chapter 46 Lactose: Uses in Industry and Biomedical Importance Lactose a Functional Disaccharide
806(15)
Byong Lee
Andrew Szilagyi
46.1 Introduction
806(1)
46.2 Industrial Uses of Lactose
807(5)
46.2.1 Biochemical Description of Lactose
807(1)
46.2.2 Analysis of Lactose
808(1)
46.2.3 Food Uses of Lactose
808(1)
46.2.4 Bioactive Lactose Derived Products
809(3)
46.2.5 Pharmaceutical Uses of Lactose
812(1)
46.3 Biomedical Significance of Lactose
812(9)
46.3.1 Digestion of Lactose
812(1)
46.3.2 Lactose Intolerance
813(1)
46.3.3 Impact of Lactose and Digestion Status on Different Diseases
813(1)
46.3.4 Gene Food Interaction
814(1)
46.3.5 Prediction of Disease Risk by Population Proportion of LP/LNP Status
815(1)
Summary Points
816(1)
Key Facts: Lactose a Functional Disaccharide: Uses in Industry and Biomedical Importance
816(1)
Key Facts: Biomedical Importance of Lactose
816(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
817(1)
List of Abbreviations
817(1)
References
818(3)
Chapter 47 Technology and Biotechnology of Lactose Contained in Raw Food Materials
821(21)
Magdalini Soupioni
Maria Kanellaki
Loulouda A. Bosnea
41.1 Introduction
821(1)
47.2 Chemical Properties of Lactose
822(2)
47.2.1 Biosynthesis of Lactose
824(1)
47.3 Recovery of Lactose -- Lactose Products and Derivatives
824(1)
47.4 Fermentation of Lactose
825(5)
47.4.1 Lactic Acid Fermentation
827(1)
47.4.2 Alcoholic Fermentation
828(1)
47.4.3 Propionic Acid Fermentation
829(1)
47.4.4 Butyric Acid Fermentation
830(1)
47.4.5 Production of Aroma Substances
830(1)
47.5 Products from Fermentation-based Modifications of Lactose
830(3)
47.5.1 Fermentation of Lactose to Ethanol
832(1)
47.6 Fermentation of Lactose by Kefir
833(1)
47.7 Bio-surfactants
834(1)
47.8 Biogas
835(7)
Summary Points
835(1)
Key Facts
836(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
836(2)
List of Abbreviations
838(1)
References
838(4)
Chapter 48 Lactose Intolerance and the Consumption of Dairy Foods
842(16)
Jeanette N. Keith
Ravi Chhatrala
48.1 Introduction
842(1)
48.2 Clinical Significance of Lactase Non-persistence
843(3)
48.2.1 Lactose Digestion
843(1)
48.2.2 Lactase Deficiency
843(2)
48.2.3 Lactose Maldigestion
845(1)
48.3 Lactose Intolerance
846(2)
48.3.1 Clinical Definition of LI
846(1)
48.3.2 Prevalence of LI
846(1)
48.3.3 Clinical Assessment
847(1)
48.4 Clinical Implications of LI
848(3)
48.4.1 Health Consequences of Dairy Avoidance
848(2)
48.4.2 Impact on Public Health
850(1)
48.5 Clinical Management of LI
851(7)
48.5.1 From Bench to Bedside
851(1)
48.5.2 Specific Dietary Strategies
851(2)
Summary Points
853(1)
Key Facts
854(1)
Definitions of Words and Terms
854(1)
List of Abbreviations
854(1)
References
855(3)
Subject Index 858
Victor Preedy is currently Professor of Nutritional Biochemistry and Director of Genomics Centre, King's College London and Professor of Clinical Biochemistry at King's College Hospital London. After graduating with a BSc degree in Physiology with Pharmacology and Biology, Professor Preedy carried out a period of research on protein metabolism in the Department of Nutrition at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. After the successful award of his PhD he studied aspects of cardiac protein metabolism at the National Heart Hospital. After 4 years, he then moved to the MRC Clinical Research Centre in Harrow, which was followed by his appointment as a lecturer to Kings College in 1988. He was promoted to Reader in 1995 and Professor in 2003. Professor Preedy has published over 550 articles, which includes over 160 peer-reviewed manuscripts based on original research and 90 reviews as well as 35 books.
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