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El. knyga: Disability and Equality Law in Britain: The Role of Reasonable Adjustment

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(University of Leeds, UK)
  • Formatas: 352 pages
  • Išleidimo metai: 10-Nov-2008
  • Leidėjas: Hart Publishing
  • Kalba: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781847314710
Kitos knygos pagal šią temą:
Disability and Equality Law in Britain: The Role of Reasonable AdjustmentDidesnis paveikslėlis
  • Formatas: 352 pages
  • Išleidimo metai: 10-Nov-2008
  • Leidėjas: Hart Publishing
  • Kalba: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781847314710
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The concept of reasonable adjustment (alternatively known as reasonable accommodation) is rapidly gaining significance for countries throughout Europe and beyond. Directive 2000/78 required all EU Member States to ensure that, by the end of 2006 at the latest, reasonable accommodation obligations would operate to protect disabled people from unequal treatment in the context of employment. The new United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities will require ratifying States to impose such obligations in a broad range of situations. This book provides a detailed and critical analysis of the current and potential role of reasonable adjustment duties in British law. It explores the notion of the anticipatory reasonable adjustment duty - a notion which is, in many respects, distinctively British. It probes the relationship between reasonable adjustment and other concepts, including indirect discrimination and positive discrimination. Drawing particularly on US debates, potential sources of resistance to the duties are exposed and an attempt is made to suggest pre-emptive counter strategies. Attention is also given to issues of legal reform and rationalisation - issues of immense topicality and importance in view of the recent British move towards a single Equality Act. In short, this book examines the current and potential role of reasonable adjustment duties in Britain. It will be of interest to lawyers, policy-makers and students working in the field of disability rights. It will also be of interest to all those concerned with the operation and development of equality law and policy more generally, both in Britain and beyond.
Acknowledgements vii
Table of Cases xv
Table of Legislation xxi
1 Introduction 1
1. Purpose and Scope
1
2. The Emergence of Reasonable Accommodation Duties in the United States
5
3. The Emergence and Location of British Reasonable Adjustment Duties
6
4. Progress Towards a Single Equality Commission and a Single Equality Act
8
4.1 Equality Commissions
8
4.2 Equality Act
9
5. The Social Model of Disability
10
6. Structure of the Book
12
2 Duties to Make Adjustments and Human Rights 15
1. Introduction
15
2. The Role of Reasonable Adjustment in Ensuring the Genuine Universality of Human Rights
17
2.1 The Traditional Invisibility of Disabled People
17
2.2 Equal Application of Human Rights
19
2.3 Reasonable Adjustment and the Human Rights of Disabled People
23
3. Reasonable Adjustments under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
25
3.1 Purposes and Obligations
25
3.1.1 The Clarification of Existing Rights
25
3.1.2 General Principles and Obligations
27
3.2 Reasonable Adjustment under the CRPD
30
4. Reasonable Adjustment and Human Rights Within the Council of Europe
34
4.1 The Council of Europe
34
4.2 Reasonable Adjustment and the ECHR
36
4.2.1 The ECHR and the Human Rights Act 1998
36
4.2.2 The Right to be Free from Discrimination
36
4.2.3 Substantive Provisions
40
4.3 Reasonable Adjustment and the European Social Charter
40
5. Reasonable Adjustment and Human Rights within the European Union
52
6. Conclusion
59
3 Reasonable Adjustment Obligations under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 63
1. Introduction
63
2. Reactive Reasonable Adjustment Duties
64
2.1 Overview
64
2.2 Context and Scope
64
2.3 Triggering the Duty
66
2.3.1 The Disabled Person Concerned
66
2.3.2 Substantial Disadvantage
67
2.3.3 Cause of the Substantial Disadvantage
69
(a) The Causal Link
69
(b) Provisions, Criteria or Practices
71
(c) Physical Features
76
2.3.4 The Knowledge Requirement
76
2.4 Discharging the Duty
78
2.4.1 Employer's Responsibility to Assess
78
2.4.2 Possible Adjustments
80
2.4.3 Reasonableness
82
2.4.4 Reasonableness Considerations Specific to Physical Alterations
88
2.5 Justification Defence
90
2.6 Enforcement
90
2.7 Summary
91
3. Anticipatory Reasonable Adjustment Duties
92
3.1 Overview
92
3.2 Context and Scope
92
3.3 Triggering the Duties
96
3.3.1 Disabled Persons
96
3.3.2 Impossibility, Difficulty or Disadvantage
99
(a) 'Impossible or Unreasonably Difficult'
99
(b) Enablement or Facilitation
102
(c) Substantial Disadvantage
102
3.3.3 Cause of the Impossibility, Difficulty or Disadvantage
103
(a) Practices, Policies or Procedures
103
(b) Physical Features
103
(c) Auxiliary Aids and Services
106
(d) Provisions, Criteria, and Practices
108
(e) Admission Arrangements and Education and Associated Services
109
3.3.4 The Knowledge Requirement
109
3.4 Discharging the Duty
110
3.4.1 Duty to Keep Services under Review
110
3.4.2 Possible Adjustments
110
3.4.3 Reasonableness
111
3.4.4 Reasonableness Considerations Specific to Physical Alterations
113
3.5 Justifying Failures to Take Reasonable Steps
114
3.5.1 Absence of a Justification Defence
114
3.5.2 The Material and Substantial Justification Defence
115
3.5.3 The Specific Belief Justification Defence
116
3.5.4 The Objective Justification Defence
118
3.6 Enforcement
119
3.7 Summary
121
4. Duties not to Withhold Consent Unreasonably to the Making of Adjustments
121
5. Conclusion
126
4 Reasonable Adjustment and Non-Discrimination Measures 129
1. Introduction
129
2. Disability-Related Discrimination
130
2.1 Outline of the Concept
130
2.1.1 Overview
130
2.1.2 Less Favourable Treatment
131
2.1.3 A Reason Related to the Disabled Person's Disability
136
2.1.4 Justification
141
2.2 Relationship with Reasonable Adjustment
146
3. Direct Discrimination
148
3.1 Outline of the Concept
148
3.1.1 Overview
148
3.1.2 Less Favourable Treatment
148
3.1.3 On the Ground of the Disabled Person's Disability
150
3.1.4 Genuine Occupational Requirements and Qualifications
153
3.2 Relationship with Reasonable Adjustment
154
4. Indirect Discrimination
155
4.1 Outline of the Concept
155
4.1.1 Overview
155
4.1.2 An Apparently Neutral Provision, Criterion or Practice
157
4.1.3 Group Disadvantage
158
4.1.4 Claimant Disadvantage
159
4.1.5 Justification
160
4.2 Relationship with Reasonable Adjustment
162
4.2.1 Conceptual Ambiguities and Multiplicities
162
4.2.2 British Indirect Discrimination and Anticipatory Reasonable Adjustment Duties
164
(a) Similarities and Differences
164
(b) Harmonisation?
169
4.2.3 British Indirect Discrimination and Reactive Reasonable Adjustment Duties
172
4.2.4 EC Indirect Discrimination and British Reasonable Adjustment Duties
173
5. Reactive Reasonable Adjustment and Non-Disability Grounds
176
6. The Classification of Reasonable Adjustment Duties as Freestanding Non-Discrimination Measures
182
7. Conclusion
185
5 Reasonable Adjustment and Positive Measures 187
1. Introduction
187
2. Positive Discrimination
189
2.1 The Primacy of Formal Equality and the General Prohibition of Positive Discrimination
189
2.2 Examples of Forms of Positive Discrimination
193
2.2.1 Quotas
193
2.2.2 Reduced Entry Requirements or Qualifications
198
2.2.3 Reservation of Professions
199
2.2.4 Supported Employment
200
2.3 The Scope of Permitted Positive Discrimination
202
2.4 A More Expansive Approach to Positive Discrimination?
203
3. Positive Action
209
4. Positive Duties to Promote Equality
212
5. Reasonable Adjustment Obligations
221
5.1 Relationship with the Disability Equality Duty
221
5.2 Relationship with Positive Action
223
5.3 Relationship with Positive Discrimination
225
5.3.1 The British Experience
225
5.3.2 The US Experience
229
6. Conclusion
232
6 Reasonable Adjustments in Practice: Resistance and Response 235
1. Introduction
235
2. Economic Inefficiency
238
2.1 Resistance
238
2.2 Response
243
2.2.1 Overview
243
2.2.2 Weaknesses in the Supporting Evidence
244
2.2.3 Unfounded Assumptions Leading to Inaccurate Calculations
244
2.2.4 Incomplete Information within the Market
247
2.2.5 Fairness and Market Unresponsiveness
250
2.2.6 General Societal Economic Benefit and State Funding
251
3. Displaced Welfare Benefits for A Protected Group
258
3.1 Resistance
258
3.2 Response
266
3.2.1 Equality
266
3.2.2 Protected Class Approach
266
3.2.3 Individualised Nature of Reasonable Accommodations
270
4. More than Equal Treatment
272
4.1 Resistance
272
4.2 Response
275
5. Reasonableness
279
5.1 Insufficiently Radical
279
5.1.1 Resistance
279
5.1.2 Response
280
5.2. Uncertainty
281
5.2.1 Resistance
281
5.2.2 Response
282
5.3 The Inegalitarian Tendency of Reasonableness
284
5.3.1 Resistance
284
5.3.2 Response
285
6. Conclusion
286
7 Conclusion 289
Index 291
Anna Lawson is a Senior Lecturer in Law at the University of Leeds.
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