Preface |
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xv | |
Acknowledgments |
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xix | |
Author |
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xxi | |
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1 Introduction to Alternative Vehicles |
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1 | (28) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
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4 | (1) |
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1.3 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Components |
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5 | (4) |
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1.4 Vehicle Mass and Performance |
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9 | (1) |
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1.5 Electric Motor and Engine Ratings |
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10 | (2) |
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1.6 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle History |
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12 | (7) |
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12 | (2) |
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14 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (2) |
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1.6.5 Recent EVs and HEVs |
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17 | (2) |
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1.7 Well-to-Wheel Analysis |
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19 | (3) |
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22 | (4) |
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1.8.1 Efficiency Comparison |
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22 | (2) |
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1.8.2 Pollution Comparison |
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24 | (1) |
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1.8.3 Capital and Operating Cost Comparison |
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25 | (1) |
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1.8.4 U.S. Dependence on Foreign Oil |
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25 | (1) |
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1.9 Electric Vehicle Market |
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26 | (3) |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (34) |
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30 | (2) |
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32 | (2) |
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34 | (3) |
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2.4 Dynamics of Vehicle Motion |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (3) |
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2.5.1 Force-Velocity Characteristics |
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38 | (2) |
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2.5.2 Maximum Gradability |
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40 | (1) |
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2.6 Velocity and Acceleration |
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41 | (8) |
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2.6.1 Constant FTRr Level Road |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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2.6.1.2 Distance Traversed |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (2) |
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2.6.2 Nonconstant FTRr General Acceleration |
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46 | (3) |
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2.7 Tire-Road Force Mechanics |
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49 | (8) |
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50 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Traction Force at Tire-Road Interface |
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51 | (1) |
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2.7.3 Force Transmission at Tire-Road Interface |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (2) |
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2.7.5 Traction Limit and Control |
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55 | (2) |
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2.8 Propulsion System Design |
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57 | (6) |
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58 | (3) |
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61 | (2) |
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3 Alternative Vehicle Architectures |
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63 | (36) |
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63 | (2) |
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3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
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65 | (8) |
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3.2.1 Hybrids Based on Architecture |
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66 | (1) |
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3.2.1.1 Series and Parallel Architectures |
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66 | (3) |
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3.2.1.2 Series-Parallel Architecture |
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69 | (1) |
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3.2.1.3 Series-Parallel 2x2 Architecture |
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70 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Hybrids Based on Transmission Assembly |
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71 | (2) |
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3.2.3 Hybrids Based on Degree of Hybridization |
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73 | (1) |
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3.3 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
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73 | (2) |
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3.4 Powertrain Component Sizing |
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75 | (15) |
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3.4.1 EV Powertrain Sizing |
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76 | (2) |
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3.4.1.1 Initial Acceleration |
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78 | (1) |
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3.4.1.2 Rated Vehicle Velocity |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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3.4.1.4 Maximum Gradability |
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80 | (1) |
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3.4.2 HEV Powertrain Sizing |
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80 | (2) |
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3.4.2.1 Rated Vehicle Velocity |
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82 | (1) |
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3.4.2.2 Initial Acceleration |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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3.4.2.4 Maximum Gradability |
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84 | (1) |
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3.4.3 HEV Powertrain Sizing Example |
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84 | (1) |
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3.4.3.1 Total Power Required: Initial Acceleration |
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85 | (3) |
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3.4.3.2 IC Engine Power: Cruising Speed |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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3.5 Mass Analysis and Packaging |
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90 | (2) |
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92 | (7) |
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92 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Standard Drive Cycles |
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93 | (4) |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (72) |
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4.1 Batteries in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles |
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101 | (3) |
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104 | (6) |
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4.2.1 Battery Cell Structure |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (5) |
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110 | (9) |
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110 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Open Circuit Voltage |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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4.4 Electrochemical Cell Fundamentals |
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119 | (13) |
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4.4.1 Thermodynamic Voltage |
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120 | (4) |
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4.4.2 Electrolysis and Faradaic Current |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (3) |
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128 | (2) |
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4.4.5 Electrical Double Layer |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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4.4.7 Concentration Polarization |
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131 | (1) |
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132 | (16) |
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4.5.1 Electric Circuit Models |
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133 | (1) |
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4.5.1.1 Basic Battery Model |
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134 | (3) |
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4.5.1.2 Run-Time Battery Model |
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137 | (1) |
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4.5.1.3 Impedance-Based Model |
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138 | (1) |
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4.5.1.4 First Principle Model |
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139 | (1) |
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140 | (2) |
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4.5.2.1 Range Prediction with Constant Current Discharge |
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142 | (4) |
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4.5.2.2 Range Prediction with Power Density Approach |
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146 | (2) |
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148 | (11) |
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149 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Nickel-Cadmium Battery |
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150 | (1) |
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4.6.3 Nickel-Metal-Hydride Battery |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (2) |
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154 | (1) |
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154 | (1) |
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4.6.7 Sodium-Sulfur Battery |
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155 | (1) |
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4.6.8 Sodium-Metal-Chloride Battery |
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155 | (2) |
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4.6.9 Goals for Advanced Batteries |
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157 | (2) |
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4.7 Battery Pack Management |
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159 | (12) |
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4.7.1 Battery Management System |
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159 | (2) |
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161 | (1) |
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4.7.3 Battery Cell Balancing |
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162 | (2) |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (3) |
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168 | (3) |
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5 Alternative Energy Storage |
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171 | (26) |
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172 | (11) |
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5.1.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics |
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173 | (2) |
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175 | (1) |
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5.1.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell |
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175 | (1) |
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5.1.2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell |
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175 | (1) |
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5.1.2.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell |
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175 | (1) |
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5.1.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell |
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176 | (1) |
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5.1.2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell |
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176 | (1) |
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5.1.2.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell |
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176 | (2) |
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178 | (1) |
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5.1.4 Hydrogen Storage Systems |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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5.1.6 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle |
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181 | (2) |
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183 | (6) |
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5.2.1 Symmetrical Ultracapacitors |
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184 | (2) |
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5.2.2 Asymmetrical Ultracapacitors |
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186 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Ultracapacitor Modeling |
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187 | (2) |
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5.3 Compressed Air Storage |
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189 | (2) |
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191 | (6) |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (3) |
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197 | (64) |
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6.1 Simple Electric Machines |
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198 | (9) |
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6.1.1 Fundamental Machine Phenomena |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
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6.1.1.2 Electromagnetic Force |
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200 | (1) |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (2) |
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203 | (1) |
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6.1.2.3 DC Machine Back-EMF and Torque |
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204 | (2) |
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6.1.3 Simple Reluctance Machine |
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206 | (1) |
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207 | (6) |
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6.3 Three-Phase AC Machines |
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213 | (13) |
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6.3.1 Sinusoidal Stator Windings |
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213 | (2) |
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215 | (1) |
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6.3.3 Three-Phase Sinusoidal Windings |
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216 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Space Vector Representation |
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216 | (5) |
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6.3.4.1 Interpretation of Space Vectors |
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221 | (1) |
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6.3.4.2 Inverse Relations |
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221 | (1) |
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6.3.4.3 Resultant mmf in a Balanced System |
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222 | (2) |
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6.3.4.4 Mutual Inductance Lm and Induced Stator Voltage |
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224 | (1) |
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6.3.5 Types of AC Machines |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (11) |
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6.4.1 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit |
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227 | (3) |
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6.4.2 Simplified Torque Expression |
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230 | (3) |
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6.4.3 Speed Control Methods |
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233 | (2) |
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6.4.4 Regenerative Braking |
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235 | (2) |
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6.5 Permanent Magnet Machines |
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237 | (12) |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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6.5.1.3 Neodymium-Iron-Boron |
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239 | (1) |
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6.5.2 PM Synchronous Motors |
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240 | (2) |
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242 | (1) |
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6.5.3.1 Voltage Equations |
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243 | (1) |
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6.5.3.2 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit |
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244 | (2) |
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6.5.4 PM Brushless DC Motors |
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246 | (1) |
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6.5.4.1 PM BLDC Machine Modeling |
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246 | (3) |
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6.6 Switched Reluctance Machines |
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249 | (12) |
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6.6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages |
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250 | (1) |
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251 | (2) |
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6.6.3 Principle of Operation |
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253 | (1) |
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6.6.3.1 Voltage-Balance Equation |
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253 | (1) |
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6.6.3.2 Energy Conversion |
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254 | (2) |
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6.6.3.3 Torque Production |
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256 | (1) |
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6.6.3.4 Torque-Speed Characteristics |
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257 | (2) |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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7 Power Electronic Converters |
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261 | (26) |
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7.1 Power Electronic Switches |
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262 | (5) |
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263 | (1) |
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264 | (2) |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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7.1.5 Bidirectional Switch |
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266 | (1) |
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267 | (11) |
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7.2.1 Non-Isolated DC/DC Converters |
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268 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (2) |
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7.2.1.3 Buck-Boost Converter |
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271 | (1) |
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7.2.1.4 Fourth-Order DC/DC Converters |
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272 | (1) |
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7.2.1.5 Powertrain Boost Converter |
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272 | (1) |
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7.2.2 Isolated DC/DC Converters |
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273 | (5) |
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7.3 Cell Balancing Converters |
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278 | (9) |
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7.3.1 Passive Balancing Methods |
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279 | (2) |
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7.3.2 Active Balancing Methods |
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281 | (1) |
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7.3.2.1 Individual DC/DC Converter |
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282 | (1) |
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7.3.2.2 Centralized DC/DC Converter |
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283 | (2) |
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7.3.2.3 Current Diverter DC/DC Converter |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (50) |
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8.1 Electric Drive Components |
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287 | (2) |
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289 | (14) |
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8.2.1 Two-Quadrant Chopper |
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289 | (2) |
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291 | (2) |
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8.2.2.1 Steady-State Analysis of Quadrant 1 |
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293 | (2) |
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8.2.2.2 Ripple Reduction in ia |
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295 | (1) |
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8.2.2.3 Acceleration (CCM) |
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296 | (1) |
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8.2.2.4 Acceleration (DCM) |
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297 | (1) |
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8.2.2.5 Acceleration (Uncontrollable Mode) |
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298 | (1) |
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8.2.2.6 Braking Operation (CCM in Steady State) |
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299 | (3) |
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8.2.2.7 Regenerative Power |
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302 | (1) |
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8.3 Operating Point Analysis |
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303 | (5) |
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308 | (17) |
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309 | (3) |
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8.4.1.1 Harmonic Analysis |
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312 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Pulse Width Modulation |
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313 | (1) |
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314 | (2) |
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8.4.2.2 Harmonics in Sinusoidal PWM |
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316 | (1) |
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316 | (3) |
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8.4.2.4 Generation of SV PWM Switching Signals |
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319 | (3) |
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8.4.3 Current Control Methods |
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322 | (1) |
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8.4.3.1 Hysteresis Current Controller |
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323 | (1) |
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8.4.3.2 Ramp Comparison Controller |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (12) |
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325 | (2) |
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327 | (1) |
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8.5.2.1 Control Parameters |
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327 | (1) |
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8.5.2.2 Advance Angle Calculation |
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328 | (1) |
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8.5.2.3 Voltage-Controlled Drive |
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329 | (1) |
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8.5.2.4 Current-Controlled Drive |
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330 | (1) |
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8.5.2.5 Advanced Control Strategies |
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330 | (1) |
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331 | (4) |
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335 | (2) |
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337 | (26) |
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9.1 Vector Control of AC Motors |
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338 | (2) |
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340 | (8) |
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9.2.1 Rotating Reference Frame |
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343 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Induction Machine dq Model |
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344 | (2) |
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9.2.3 Power and Electromagnetic Torque |
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346 | (2) |
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9.3 Induction Machine Vector Control |
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348 | (7) |
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9.3.1 Rotor Flux-Oriented Vector Control |
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349 | (3) |
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9.3.2 Direct and Indirect Vector Control |
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352 | (1) |
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9.3.2.1 Direct Vector Control |
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352 | (2) |
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9.3.2.2 Indirect Vector Control |
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354 | (1) |
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9.3.2.3 Vector Control Implementation |
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354 | (1) |
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9.4 PM Machine Vector Control |
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355 | (8) |
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9.4.1 Voltage and Torque in Reference Frame |
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355 | (1) |
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356 | (2) |
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9.4.3 Transformation Equations |
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358 | (1) |
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9.4.4 PM Synchronous Motor Drives |
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358 | (2) |
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360 | (1) |
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9.4.4.2 Current and Voltage Controllers |
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360 | (1) |
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361 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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10 Internal Combustion Engines |
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363 | (32) |
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10.1 Internal Combustion Engines |
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363 | (10) |
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10.1.1 Reciprocating Engines |
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365 | (2) |
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10.1.2 Practical and Air-Standard Cycles |
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367 | (1) |
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10.1.2.1 Air-Standard Otto Cycle |
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368 | (2) |
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10.1.2.2 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle |
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370 | (1) |
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10.1.3 Gas Turbine Engines |
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371 | (2) |
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373 | (2) |
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10.3 Vehicle Fuel Economy |
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375 | (4) |
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10.3.1 Fuel Economy in Hybrids |
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378 | (1) |
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10.4 Emission Control System |
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379 | (10) |
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10.4.1 Generation of Pollutants |
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380 | (2) |
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10.4.2 Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on Emissions |
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382 | (2) |
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384 | (4) |
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10.4.4 Emission Control Components |
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388 | (1) |
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10.4.4.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation |
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388 | (1) |
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10.4.4.2 Catalytic Converter |
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388 | (1) |
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10.4.5 Treatment of Diesel Exhaust Emissions |
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389 | (6) |
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10.4.5.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalysts |
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390 | (1) |
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10.4.5.2 Diesel Particulate Filters |
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390 | (1) |
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10.4.5.3 Methods of NOv Reduction |
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391 | (2) |
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393 | (1) |
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393 | (2) |
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11 Powertrain Components and Brakes |
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395 | (32) |
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11.1 Powertrain Components |
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396 | (2) |
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11.1.1 Electric Vehicle Powertrain |
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397 | (1) |
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398 | (10) |
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400 | (3) |
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11.2.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics |
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403 | (3) |
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11.2.3 Planetary Gear Set |
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406 | (2) |
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408 | (1) |
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408 | (1) |
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409 | (7) |
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11.5.1 Manual Transmission |
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410 | (2) |
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11.5.2 Automatic Transmission |
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412 | (1) |
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11.5.2.1 Torque Converter |
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412 | (2) |
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11.5.2.2 Automatic Transmission in Hybrids |
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414 | (1) |
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11.5.3 Continuously Variable Transmission |
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414 | (1) |
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11.5.4 eCVT/HEV Transmission |
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415 | (1) |
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416 | (11) |
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11.6.1 Conventional Brake System |
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416 | (6) |
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11.6.2 Electromechanical Brake System |
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422 | (3) |
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425 | (1) |
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426 | (1) |
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427 | (12) |
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12.1 Climate Control System |
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427 | (6) |
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12.1.1 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle |
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428 | (3) |
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12.1.2 Vehicle Air-Conditioning System |
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431 | (2) |
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12.2 Powertrain Component-Cooling System |
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433 | (6) |
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437 | (2) |
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13 Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy |
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439 | (30) |
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13.1 Vehicle Supervisory Controller |
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440 | (1) |
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13.2 Mode Selection Strategy |
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441 | (10) |
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13.2.1 Mechanical Power-Split Hybrid Modes |
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444 | (1) |
|
13.2.1.1 Electric Only (Low Speeds, Reverse, Battery Charging) |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
13.2.1.2 Engine Starting (Low Speeds) |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
13.2.1.3 Parallel Mode (Heavy Acceleration) |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
13.2.1.4 Power-Split Mode (Cruise, Light Acceleration) |
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
13.2.1.5 Engine-Brake Mode (Driver Selectable Mode) |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
13.2.1.6 Regeneration Mode (Vehicle Braking) |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
13.2.2 Series-Parallel 2x2 Hybrid Modes |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
13.2.2.1 Electric-Only (Low Speeds, Reverse, Battery Charging) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
13.2.2.2 Series Mode (Low Speeds) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
13.2.2.3 Power-Split Mode (Cruise, Light Acceleration) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
13.2.2.4 Parallel Mode (Heavy Acceleration) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
13.3 Modal Control Strategies |
|
|
451 | (18) |
|
|
452 | (2) |
|
|
454 | (2) |
|
13.3.3 Series-Parallel Control |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
13.3.3.1 Mechanical Power-Split IC Engine Control |
|
|
456 | (2) |
|
13.3.3.2 Series-Parallel 2 x 2 Control |
|
|
458 | (2) |
|
13.3.4 Energy Storage System Control |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
13.3.5 Regeneration Control |
|
|
461 | (4) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
466 | (3) |
|
14 Vehicle Communications |
|
|
469 | (18) |
|
14.1 OSI Seven-Layer Model |
|
|
469 | (2) |
|
14.2 In-Vehicle Communications |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
14.3 Controller Area Network |
|
|
472 | (15) |
|
14.3.1 CAN Transfer Protocol |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 CAN Transfer Layer |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
14.3.2.2 CAN Message Frames |
|
|
476 | (3) |
|
14.3.2.3 Message Arbitration |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
14.3.2.4 Error Detection and Error Signaling |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
14.3.3 CAN Physical Layer |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
|
483 | (3) |
|
|
486 | (1) |
Index |
|
487 | |