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El. knyga: Energy Storage Options and Their Environmental Impact

Edited by (University of York, UK), Edited by (University of Birmingham, UK)
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Recent decades have seen huge growth in the renewable energy sector, spurred on by concerns about climate change and dwindling supplies of fossil fuels. One of the major difficulties raised by an increasing reliance on renewable resources is the inflexibility when it comes to controlling supply in response to demand. For example, solar energy can only be produced during the day. The development of methods for storing the energy produced by renewable sources is therefore crucial to the continued stability of global energy supplies.



However, as with all new technology, it is important to consider the environmental impacts as well as the benefits. This book brings together authors from a variety of different backgrounds to explore the state-of-the-art of large-scale energy storage and examine the environmental impacts of the main categories based on the types of energy stored.



A valuable resource, not just for those working and researching in the renewable energy sector, but also for policymakers around the world.
Editors xv
List of Contributors
xvii
Energy Sources and Supply Grids -- The Growing Need for Storage
1(41)
Peter Duffy
Colin Fitzpatrick
Thomas Conway
Robert P. Lynch
1 Introduction
2(1)
2 Energy Sources
3(13)
2.1 Generation of Electricity from Combustion of Fossil Fuels
3(4)
2.2 Nuclear Power
7(2)
2.3 Renewables: Solar, Wind, Wave, Tidal and Hydro
9(4)
2.4 Geothermal, Combined Heat and Power, Biomass Combustion and Waste Incineration
13(3)
3 Operation of Electricity Networks
16(7)
3.1 Transmission Network
18(1)
3.2 Distribution Network
19(1)
3.3 Distributed Generation
19(1)
3.4 Mini Grids
20(3)
4 Stabilisation of the Electricity Grid
23(8)
4.1 System Support Services
23(2)
4.2 Impact of Renewables on Operation of Electricity Grid
25(2)
4.3 Corrective Measures for Mitigating RoCoF
27(1)
4.4 Demand-side Solutions and Smart Grids
28(2)
4.5 Need for Energy Storage
30(1)
5 Electric Vehicles and the Electricity Grids
31(5)
5.1 Slow Charging
33(1)
5.2 Fast Charging
33(2)
5.3 End-of-life Usage
35(1)
5.4 Implications of Connecting Electric Vehicles to the Electricity Grid
35(1)
6 Conclusion
36(6)
References
38(4)
Mechanical Systems for Energy Storage -- Scale and Environmental Issues. Pumped Hydroelectric and Compressed Air Energy Storage
42(73)
David J. Evans
Gideon Carpenter
Gareth Farr
1 Introduction
42(3)
2 Pumped Hydroelectric Storage - Introduction to the Technology, Geology and Environmental Aspects
45(20)
2.1 Efficiencies and Economics
49(2)
2.2 UK Deployment of PHS
51(2)
2.3 Environmental and Regulatory Factors in PHS
53(12)
3 Compressed Air Energy Storage -- Introduction to the Technologies, Geology and Environmental Aspects
65(50)
3.1 Applications of CAES
69(1)
3.2 CAES Configurations -- DCAES, ACAES/AACAES, ICAES
69(4)
3.3 Geological Storage Options
73(5)
3.4 Operational Modes of CAES `Reservoirs'
78(2)
3.5 UK Potential for Deployment of CAES
80(1)
3.6 Planning and Regulatory Environment for CAES
81(4)
3.7 Environmental Performance, Emissions, Sustainability and Economics of CAES Systems
85(12)
3.8 Safety Record of CAES and Some Potential Risks (Human and Environmental)
97(1)
Acknowledgements
98(1)
References
98(17)
Electrochemical Energy Storage
115(35)
D. Noel Buckley
Colm O'Dwyer
Nathan Quill
Robert P. Lynch
1 Introduction
116(2)
1.1 Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells
116(1)
1.2 Batteries, Fuel Cells and Flow Batteries
117(1)
2 Lead-Acid Batteries
118(7)
2.1 Fundamental Aspects of Lead-Acid Batteries
119(2)
2.2 Electrodes
121(1)
2.3 Cell Designs
122(2)
2.4 Cycle Depth
124(1)
2.5 Environmental Aspects
124(1)
3 Lithium and Lithium-ion Batteries
125(5)
3.1 Basic Theory, Structure and Operation
125(2)
3.2 Materials
127(1)
3.3 Electrolytes
127(2)
3.4 Separators
129(1)
3.5 Sustainability of Lithium-ion Batteries
129(1)
4 Other Battery Chemistries
130(1)
4.1 Sodium--Sulfur Batteries
130(1)
4.2 Nickel--Metal Hydride Batteries
131(1)
5 Fuel Cells
131(7)
5.1 Low-temperature Fuel Cells
132(3)
5.2 High-temperature Fuel Cells
135(1)
5.3 Fuel Cells for Energy Storage
136(1)
5.4 Environmental Issues with Hydrogen Production and Distribution
137(1)
6 Flow Batteries
138(4)
6.1 Traditional Redox Flow Batteries: The All-vanadium Flow Battery
139(2)
6.2 Hybrid Flow Batteries: The Zinc-Bromine Flow Battery
141(1)
6.3 Slurry Flow Batteries: The All-iron Flow Battery
141(1)
6.4 Other Flow Battery Systems
142(1)
7 Summary and Conclusions
142(8)
References
144(6)
Electrical Storage
150(34)
Han Shao
Padmanathan Narayanasamy
Kafil M. Razeeb
Robert P. Lynch
Fernando M. F. Rhen
1 Introduction
150(1)
2 Supercapacitor and Supercapattery
151(15)
2.1 Basics of Energy Storage Devices
151(5)
2.2 Pseudobattery-type Electrode Materials
156(7)
2.3 Supercapattery Performance
163(2)
2.4 Prospects and Future
165(1)
3 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
166(3)
3.1 Basic Aspects of SMES
166(1)
3.2 State-of-the-Art, Trends and Challenges for SMES
167(2)
4 Flywheels, Flywheel Batteries and Synchronous Condensers
169(15)
4.1 Fundamental Theory of Mechanical Energy Storage
169(2)
4.2 Basic Aspects of Flywheels
171(4)
4.3 Basic Aspects of Synchronous Motors, Generators and Condensers
175(2)
4.4 Current Trends and Challenges for Flywheels
177(2)
References
179(5)
Photochemical Energy Storage
184(26)
Gaia Neri
Mark Forster
Alexander J. Cowan
1 Introduction
184(2)
2 Classes of Solar Fuels and Feedstocks
186(6)
2.1 Sustainable H2 Production
188(1)
2.2 Sustainable Carbon Fuels Through CO2 Reduction
189(3)
3 Reaction Enhancement and Selectivity by Catalysis
192(2)
4 Current Status of Light-driven Fuel Production
194(10)
4.1 PV-driven Electrolysis of Water to Generate H2
194(2)
4.2 PV-driven Electrolysis for CO2 Reduction
196(2)
4.3 Photochemical and Photoelectrochemical Cells
198(6)
5 Summary and Conclusions
204(6)
References
204(6)
Thermal and Thermochemical Storage
210(18)
Yukitaka Kato
Takahiro Nomura
1 Introduction
210(1)
2 Latent Heat Storage
211(8)
2.1 Principle of LHS
211(1)
2.2 Materials for LHS
212(1)
2.3 Encapsulation and Composite Technology for LHS
212(3)
2.4 Heat Exchangers for LHS
215(1)
2.5 Applications of LHS
216(3)
3 Thermochemical Energy Storage
219(9)
3.1 Principle of TCES
219(3)
3.2 Variety of TCES
222(1)
3.3 Material and Reactor Technologies for TCES
223(2)
3.4 Applications of TCES
225(1)
3.5 Challenges and Barriers to Implementation
226(1)
References
226(2)
Smart Energy Systems
228(33)
Susana Paardekooper
Rasmus Lund
Henrik Lund
1 Smart Energy Systems
229(7)
1.1 General Objectives
229(1)
1.2 Reducing the Need for Fuels
230(2)
1.3 Smart Electric, Thermal and Gas Grids
232(1)
1.4 Coupling of Energy Sectors
233(3)
2 Potential of Smart Energy Systems and Sector Coupling
236(5)
2.1 IDA Energy Vision 2050
236(2)
2.2 Smart Energy Europe
238(2)
2.3 The Energy System Analysis Tool EnergyPLAN
240(1)
3 The Need for Storage in a Smart Energy Systems Perspective
241(6)
3.1 Assessment of Storage Needs: A Function of the Demands
241(1)
3.2 Comparison of Costs for Different Storage Types
242(5)
4 The Relevance of Storage in a Smart Energy System
247(8)
4.1 Renewable Fuels
247(3)
4.2 Large-scale Hydroelectric Storage
250(2)
4.3 Local Electric Storage in Electric Vehicles
252(1)
4.4 Thermal Storage
253(2)
5 Conclusion
255(6)
References
257(4)
Life-cycle Analysis for Assessing Environmental Impact
261(35)
Heidi Hottenroth
Jens Peters
Manuel Baumann
Tobias Viere
Ingela Tietze
1 Introduction to Life-cycle Assessment
262(1)
2 Life-cycle Assessment of Energy Storage Systems
263(1)
3 Selection of Impact Indicators
264(3)
4 Case Study 1: Life-cycle Assessment of Pumped Hydroelectric Storage and Battery Storage
267(9)
4.1 Goal and Scope
267(1)
4.2 Description of Compared Systems and Functional Equivalency
268(1)
4.3 Underlying Data
269(2)
4.4 Results
271(2)
4.5 Sensitivity Analysis
273(1)
4.6 Discussion
274(2)
5 Case Study 2: Life-cycle Assessment of Different Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries for a Small-scale Energy System
276(10)
5.1 Goal and Scope
276(1)
5.2 Underlying Data
277(3)
5.3 Results
280(5)
5.4 Discussion
285(1)
6 Case Study 3: Life-cycle Assessment of Energy Scenarios with Various Uses of Heat and Battery Storage for a Small-scale Energy System
286(5)
6.1 Goal and Scope
286(1)
6.2 Description of Compared Systems and Functional Equivalency
287(1)
6.3 Underlying Data
288(1)
6.4 Results
288(2)
6.5 Discussion
290(1)
7 Conclusion
291(5)
Abbreviations
292(1)
Acknowledgements
292(1)
References
293(3)
Business Opportunities and the Regulatory Framework
296(31)
Reinhard Madlener
Jan Martin Specht
1 Introduction
297(4)
2 Economic Value of Storage
301(9)
2.1 Matching Technologies to Applications
301(4)
2.2 Merit Order of Alternative Storage Options
305(2)
2.3 Location and Energy Density of Storage Units
307(1)
2.4 Optimal Sizing of Storage Units
308(1)
2.5 Economic Impact of Aging of Batteries
309(1)
2.6 Prosumer Concept
309(1)
2.7 Energy Cloud Concepts
310(1)
3 Value Creation for Business Models
310(9)
3.1 Subsidies and Tariff Schemes
310(1)
3.2 Economic Value from Energy (Self-) Supply
311(1)
3.3 Economic Value from Ancillary Services
312(2)
3.4 Economic Value from Arbitrage
314(2)
3.5 Virtual Power Plants (VPPs) with Storage
316(3)
4 Regulatory Considerations
319(1)
5 Conclusion
320(7)
References
320(7)
Subject Index 327
Ron Hester is an emeritus professor of chemistry at the University of York. In addition to his research work on a wide range of applications of vibrational spectroscopy, he has been actively involved in environmental chemistry and was a founder member of the Royal Society of Chemistrys Environment Group. His current activities are mainly as an editor and as an external examiner and assessor on courses, individual promotions, and departmental/subject area evaluations both in the UK and abroad.

Roy Harrison OBE is Queen Elizabeth II Birmingham Centenary Professor of Environmental Health at the University of Birmingham. In 2004 he was appointed OBE for services to environmental science. Professor Harrisons research interests lie in the field of environment and human health. His main specialism is in air pollution, from emissions through atmospheric chemical and physical transformations to exposure and effects on human health. Much of this work is designed to inform the development of policy.
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