| Preface |
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xv | |
| Table of cases |
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xvii | |
| Table of treaties and environmental legislation |
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xxxii | |
| Table of abbreviations |
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lx | |
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1 | (29) |
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1.1 Legal architecture and terminology of the EU: a brief overview |
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8 | (5) |
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1.1.1 Overview of the Union's constitutional development |
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9 | (4) |
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1.2 The EU's institutional framework |
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13 | (4) |
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1.3 EU environmental policy and law |
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17 | (13) |
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1.3.1 Legal basis for the adoption of EU environmental measures |
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18 | (3) |
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1.3.2 Types of EU environmental legislative measures |
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21 | (9) |
| Part I The role of the European Commission in enforcing EU environmental law |
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2 EU institutional enforcement of EU environmental law: the general legal framework |
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30 | (29) |
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2.1 The role of the European Commission as primary law enforcer |
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32 | (3) |
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2.2 Types of breaches of EU environmental law |
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35 | (5) |
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2.2.1 Von-transposition cases |
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35 | (2) |
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2.2.2 Bad-application' cases |
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37 | (3) |
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2.3 Enforcement proceedings brought by the European Commission: Articles 258 and 260(2) TFEU |
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40 | (10) |
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2.3.1 Structure and format of Article 258 TFEU proceedings |
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41 | (7) |
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2.3.2 Structure and format of Article 260(2) TFEU second-round proceedings |
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48 | (2) |
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2.4 Enforcement proceedings brought by a Member State: Article 259 TFEU |
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50 | (4) |
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2.5 The European Atomic Energy Community Treaty and infringement proceedings |
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54 | (5) |
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3 Enforcement action brought by the European Commission (1): Article 258 TFEU and 'first-round' infringement proceedings |
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59 | (88) |
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3.1 Detection of breaches of law |
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60 | (1) |
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3.2 Overview of core elements of Commission infringement proceedings |
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61 | (10) |
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3.2.1 General remarks regarding first-round proceedings under Article 258 TFEU |
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61 | (3) |
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3.2.2 General remarks regarding second-round proceedings under Article 260(2) TFEU |
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64 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Tables highlighting procedure and typical length of Article 258 TFEU infringement actions |
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65 | (6) |
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3.3 The pre-litigation phase in Article 258 TFEU infringement proceedings |
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71 | (32) |
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3.3.1 Evidence and onus of proof |
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72 | (4) |
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3.3.2 Investigations and the role of Article 4(3) TEU: AO of co-operation |
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76 | (2) |
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3.3.3 European Commission discretion in deciding to take legal action |
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78 | (11) |
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3.3.4 Letter of Formal Notice (LFN): the first written warning |
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89 | (5) |
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3.3.5 Reasoned Opinion (RO): the second written warning |
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94 | (9) |
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3.4 The litigation phase: application to the CJEU |
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103 | (5) |
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3.4.1 Contents of the Court application |
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103 | (4) |
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3.4.2 Temporal aspects of the litigation phase |
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107 | (1) |
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3.5 Common defence submissions in environmental infringement proceedings |
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108 | (14) |
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3.5.1 Internal problems facing an EU member state |
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111 | (1) |
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3.5.2 The element of fault on the part of the defendant member state |
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112 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Breach by another member state |
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112 | (1) |
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3.5.4 De minimis-type arguments |
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113 | (1) |
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3.5.5 Adequacy of implementation of EU environmental law |
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114 | (6) |
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120 | (2) |
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3.6 Interim relief and Article 258 TFEU proceedings |
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122 | (25) |
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3.6.1 Legal and institutional framework for securing interim measures |
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123 | (4) |
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3.6.2 Interim measures and environmental casework |
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127 | (20) |
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4 Enforcement action brought by the European Commission (2): Article 260 TFEU and 'second-round' infringement proceedings |
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147 | (49) |
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147 | (7) |
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4.1.1 Duration of second-round infringement procedure |
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149 | (5) |
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4.2 General legal framework of the second-round infringement action (Article 260 TFEU) |
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154 | (11) |
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4.2.1 Article 260(1) TFEU |
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157 | (4) |
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4.2.2 Article 260(2) TFEU |
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161 | (4) |
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4.3 Financial penalties under Article 260(2) TFEU |
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165 | (20) |
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4.3.1 European Commission policy on financial penalties under Article 260(2) TFEU |
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166 | (8) |
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4.3.2 The CIEU-'s principles relating to financial sanctions under Article 260(2) TFEU |
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174 | (11) |
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4.4 Some concluding remarks on the second-round infringement procedure |
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185 | (11) |
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4A Environmental cases and Article 260(2) TFEU (on website) |
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4A.1 Second-round cases involving bad application of EU environmental law |
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4A.1.1 Kouroupitos (2) (Case C-387/97) |
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4A.1.2 Spanish Bathing Waters (2) (Case C-278/01) |
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4A.1.3 French Fishing Controls (2) (Case C-304/02) |
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4A.1.4 Belgian and Luxembourg Waste Water Treatment cases (Cases C-533/11 and C-576/11) |
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4A.2 Second-round cases involving nonconformity with EU environmental law |
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4A.2.1 French GMO Controls (2) (Case-121/07) |
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4A.2.2 Irish Waste Water (2) (Case C-374/11) |
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4A.2.3 Irish EIA (2) (Case C-279/11) |
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5 Enforcement action brought by the European Commission (3): some critical reflections |
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196 | (65) |
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5.1 Investigation and detection of infringements |
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198 | (7) |
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5.1.1 Investigatory and inspection tools |
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198 | (5) |
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203 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Complainants as sources of information on environmental law enforcement |
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204 | (1) |
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5.2 Limitations of legal structures underpinning Articles 258 and 260 TFEU |
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205 | (15) |
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206 | (8) |
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214 | (6) |
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5.3 The European Commission and conflicts of interest |
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220 | (7) |
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5.3.1 College of Commissioners |
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222 | (1) |
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5.3.2 The level of Directorate General |
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223 | (4) |
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5.4 Prioritisation of cases and reform of the monitoring process |
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227 | (12) |
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5.4.1 Commission responses to the issue of casework prioritisation |
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230 | (9) |
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5.5 Accountability and infringement proceedings |
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239 | (5) |
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5.6 Statistical information on EU environmental infringement cases |
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244 | (7) |
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5.6.1 European Commission annual reports on monitoring the application of EU law |
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244 | (1) |
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5.6.2 European Commission annual surveys and other annual publications on the implementation and enforcement of EU environmental law |
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245 | (1) |
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5.6.3 Statistical tables on EU environmental complaints and infringement cases |
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246 | (5) |
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5.7 Some brief concluding remarks |
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251 | (10) |
| Part II The role of private persons in enforcing EU environmental law |
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Section 1 Taking action at national level |
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6 Enforcement of EU environmental law at national level by private persons: general legal principles |
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261 | (69) |
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6.1 Direct effect and EU environmental law |
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265 | (46) |
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6.1.1 General introduction |
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265 | (6) |
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6.1.2 Criteria for direct effect and EU environmental directives |
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271 | (13) |
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6.1.3 Applying direct effect of directives against public authorities |
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284 | (12) |
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6.1.4 Reliance upon directives against private persons |
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296 | (15) |
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6.2 Indirect effect and EU environmental law |
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311 | (5) |
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311 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Indirect effect and liability under criminal or administrative law |
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313 | (3) |
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316 | (14) |
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7 Access to justice at national level for breaches of EU environmental law (1): the role of the Court of Justice of the EU |
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330 | (36) |
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7.1 General principle of procedural autonomy under EU law |
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331 | (2) |
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7.2 Remedies at national level: general principles developed by the GJEU |
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333 | (7) |
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7.2.1 Duties on national courts to provide remedies |
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333 | (4) |
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7.2.2 Duties of non-judicial national authorities to provide adequate remedies |
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337 | (3) |
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7.3 State for breaches of EU environmental law |
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340 | (20) |
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7.3.1 General legal criteria for proving state under EU law |
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340 | (8) |
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7.3.2 State liability and EU environmental law |
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348 | (12) |
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7.4 Some concluding remarks |
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360 | (6) |
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8 Access to justice at national level for breaches of EU environmental law (2): EU legislation on access to legal review at national level |
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366 | (58) |
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8.1 The 1998 Arhus Convention and its impact on the EU legal order |
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370 | (12) |
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370 | (5) |
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8.1.2 Legal impact of Arhus for the European Union |
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375 | (7) |
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8.2 EU legislative implementation of the Arhus Convention's obligations on access to environmental justice |
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382 | (16) |
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8.2.1 Access to justice regarding the first pillar of Arhus (environmental information) |
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383 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Access to justice regarding the second pillar of Arhus (public participation in environmental decision-making) |
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384 | (7) |
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8.2.3 Access to justice regarding the third pillar: environmental law enforcement |
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391 | (7) |
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8.3 Possibilities for a general EU directive on access to justice in environmental matters at national level |
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398 | (15) |
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8.3.1 The Seventh EU Environmental Action Programme (EAP7) and access to environmental justice at national level |
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399 | (1) |
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8.3.2 The 2003 Draft Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (AJEM) Directive |
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400 | (13) |
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8.4 Some concluding remarks |
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413 | (11) |
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8A Right of access to environmental information at national level: a complement to access to justice (on website) |
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8A.1 Directive 2003/4 on public access to environmental information (AEI Directive) |
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8A.1.1 Right of access to environmental information under the AEI Directive |
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8A.1.2 Public dissemination of environmental information under the AEI Directive |
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8A.1.3 Impact of the AEI Directive on EU environmental law enforcement |
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Section 2 Taking action at EU level |
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9 Private enforcement of EU environmental law at EU institutional level (1): access to justice |
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424 | (57) |
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9.1 Access to environmental justice under the EU treaty system |
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427 | (32) |
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9.1.1 Article 263 TFEU - annulment proceedings |
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429 | (17) |
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9.1.2 Article 267 TFEU - the preliminary ruling procedure |
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446 | (4) |
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9.1.3 Article 265 TFEU - legal proceedings in respect of a failure to act |
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450 | (3) |
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9.1.4 Articles 268 and 340(2) IFEU - non-contractual liability |
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453 | (6) |
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9.2 The Arhus. Regulation 1367/06 and access to environmental justice at EU level |
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459 | (10) |
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9.2.1 Material and personal scope of the Arhus Regulation's access to justice provisions |
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460 | (5) |
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9.2.2 Review procedures under the Arhus Regulation's access-to- justice provisions |
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465 | (1) |
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9.2.3 EU case law on the Arhus Regulation's impact on judicial review |
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466 | (3) |
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9.3 Internal review under the Ship Recycling Regulation 1257/13 |
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469 | (2) |
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9.4 Some brief reflections on the impact of the EU's access to environmental justice framework in relation to EU institutional conduct |
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471 | (10) |
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9A Private enforcement of EU environmental law at EU institutional level (1A): access to environmental information (on website) |
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9A.1 Origins of the EU's legal framework on access to environmental information |
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9A.2 EU legislative framework on access to environmental information |
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9A.2.1 Scope of EU legislation on access to environmental information |
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9A.2.2 Right of access to environmental information |
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9A.2.3 Exceptions to the right of access to information |
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9A.2.4 Appeal mechanisms: European Ombudsman and judicial review |
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9A.3 Access to information and European Commission infringement case files: EU case law and administrative practice |
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9A.3.1 EU case law on access to environmental infringement files |
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9A.3.2 Administrative practice of the Commission on access to its infringement case files |
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9A.4 Some reflections on the EU legal framework concerning access to environmental information |
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10 Private enforcement of EU environmental law at EU institutional level (2): administrative complaints procedures and other possibilities |
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481 | (56) |
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10.1 The European Ombudsman (EO) |
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482 | (26) |
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10.1.1 General remit and powers of the EO |
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485 | (16) |
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10.1.2 Environmental maladministration complaints |
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501 | (7) |
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10.2 The European Parliament (EP) |
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508 | (7) |
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10.2.1 Right of petition to the EP |
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509 | (3) |
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10.2.2 Parliamentary questions |
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512 | (1) |
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10.2.3 EP temporary committees of inquiry |
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513 | (1) |
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10.2.4 The EP and Article 258/260 TFEU infringement proceedings |
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514 | (1) |
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10.3 European Citizens' Initiative (ECI) |
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515 | (4) |
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10.3.1 Eligibility and procedure concerning the ECI |
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516 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Right2Water - the first ECI |
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517 | (2) |
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10.4 The European Environment Agency (EEA) |
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519 | (1) |
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10.5 The Council of the EU and individual member states |
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520 | (1) |
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10.6 Some concluding remarks |
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521 | (16) |
| Part III The role of member states in enforcing EU environmental law |
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11 Enforcement of EU environmental law by national authorities (1): general principles and environmental inspection responsibilities |
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537 | (56) |
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11.1 General implementation duties of national authorities under EU law |
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539 | (7) |
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11.1.1 Active legal responsibilities of national authorities under EU law |
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540 | (3) |
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11.1.2 Passive legal responsibilities of national authorities under EU law |
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543 | (2) |
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11.1.3 The principle of subsidiarity |
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545 | (1) |
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546 | (11) |
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11.2.1 Origins and initial development of IMPEL |
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547 | (2) |
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11.2.2 Overview of IMPEL's current organisational structure and activities |
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549 | (3) |
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11.2.3 Increasing influence of IMPEL on EU environmental policy |
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552 | (3) |
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11.2.4 Brief appraisal of IMPEL's impact |
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555 | (2) |
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11.3 Environmental inspections and EU controls |
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557 | (20) |
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11.3.1 The first phase: Recommendation 2001/331 on environmental inspections (RMCEI) |
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558 | (10) |
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11.3.2 Sectoral development of binding EU environmental inspection standards |
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568 | (8) |
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11.3.3 The impact of EAP7: a trajectory towards general streamlining on inspection standards |
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576 | (1) |
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11.4 Implementation, environmental inspections and the EU: some concluding remarks |
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577 | (16) |
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11.4.1 Implementation duties |
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578 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Environmental inspections |
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579 | (14) |
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12 Enforcement of EU environmental law by national authorities (2): environmental civil liability |
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593 | (49) |
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12.1 The Council of Europe's 1993 'Lugano' Convention |
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594 | (3) |
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12.2 Developments of EU environmental policy on environmental civil liability |
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597 | (3) |
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12.3 EU Directive 2004/35 on environmental liability (ELD) |
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600 | (21) |
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12.3.1 Scope of liability under the ELD |
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603 | (9) |
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12.3.2 Extent of liability: an operator's specific obligations |
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612 | (6) |
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12.3.3 Competent authorities: principal enforcers |
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618 | (3) |
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12.3.4 Cross-border liability scenarios |
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621 | (1) |
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12.4 Implementation of the ELD |
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621 | (6) |
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12.4.1 The supervisory role of the European Commission |
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622 | (3) |
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625 | (2) |
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12.5 Environmental civil liability and the EU: some concluding remarks |
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627 | (15) |
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13 Enforcement of EU environmental law by national authorities (3): environmental criminal liability |
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642 | (47) |
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13.1 1998 Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law (PECL Convention) |
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644 | (6) |
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13.2 The origins of EU environmental criminal policy |
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650 | (21) |
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13.2.1 The initial phases of policy development: the battle over intergovernmental and supranational competence (1957-2007) |
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650 | (21) |
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13.3 EU environmental criminal law comes of age: Directive 2008/99 |
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671 | (4) |
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13.4 The impact of the 2007 Lisbon Treaty on the future prospects for EU environmental criminal law |
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675 | (4) |
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13.5 Some brief reflections |
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679 | (10) |
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14 EU environmental law enforcement: reflections |
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689 | (12) |
| Bibliography |
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701 | (10) |
| Index |
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711 | |
