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El. knyga: Foreign Currency: Claims, Judgments and Damages

(Quadrant Chambers, UK), (Holman, Fenwick & Willan, UK),
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Currency fluctuation, currency wars and even potential currency collapse (the Euro, the Bitcoin) are all risks that commercial parties must consider and guard against.

This book gathers together in one volume all the information and advice practitioners are likely to need when advising on, advancing or defending claims involving a foreign currency element.

The determination of the proper currency (or currencies) of a claim often has a dramatic effect on the level of a court judgment or arbitration award that is ultimately obtained. It is, therefore, vital for practitioners to accurately assess claims which involve a foreign currency element.

The authors guide the reader through the legal principles governing how foreign currency claims are treated in English law. The book covers both the treatment of foreign currency in substantive law as well as such procedural matters as how to claim interest correctly on a foreign currency claim and how to plead, prove or disprove the applicability of a particular currency.

This book is an invaluable and essential resource for all lawyers involved in international commerce, but will be of particular interest to those engaged in international finance, commodity transactions, international shipping and transport, and the insurance of assets and liabilities abroad.

"Those who practise in this country need guidance in navigating the tricky waters that The Despina R unleashed. This excellent book provides that guidance."

The authors "have been uniquely well placed to meet the challenge of analysing what is a perplexing body of jurisprudence, and to suggest principled answers to currency issues that have not yet been the subject of judicial decision. They consider not merely claims in contract and tort, but every type of claim that might raise an issue in relation to a foreign currency."

The Rt Hon. The Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, KG, PC,

President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, 2009-2012

Recenzijos

"An excellent text in a field of great complexity... The text is comprehensive in seeking to cover a wide range of areas in which foreign currency issues may become relevant, and has been prepared by authors who are plainly well-suited to their task. The text will appeal to solicitors and barristers who need to argue these matters, but it also contains much discussion of real academic value."

Charles Proctor Partner, Fladgate LLP

"On any view, this is a most remarkable book a well-researched, masterly study of a difficult subject. The authors tackle head-on practical problems concerning foreign currency claims in disparate areas of the law and, where appropriate, happily stick their necks out in expressing their views. Praise be to the brave. The result is a unique book which provides excellent and invaluable guidance for anyone concerned with claims in a foreign currency."

Hon Sir Bernard Eder, The Law Quarterly Review

Foreword xv
Preface xix
Table of cases xxiii
Table of legislation xxxiii
Table of orders, regulations and rules xxxvii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1(6)
Overview
1(1)
When the principles relating to claims in foreign currency really matter
2(1)
The old law (pre-Miliangos)
2(1)
Exceptions to the 'breach-date' rule prior to Miliangos
3(1)
The decision in Miliangos
4(1)
The current law: contract
4(1)
The current law: tort
4(1)
The current law: unjust enrichment and restitution
5(1)
The current law: insolvency
5(1)
Interest
6(1)
Claiming damages for foreign exchange losses
6(1)
Alternative currencies and the euro
6(1)
Chapter 2 Basic concepts 7(13)
Summary
7(1)
Bank note
7(1)
Bitcoin
7(1)
Breach-date rule
8(1)
Cash
8(1)
Coins/coinage
9(1)
Convertibility
9(1)
Cryptocurrency
10(1)
Currency
10(1)
Currency of account/currency of payment
11(1)
Domestic currency
12(1)
ECU - the European Currency Unit
12(1)
Exchange rate
12(1)
Foreign currency
12(1)
CONTENTS Gold clause
12(1)
Gold standard
13(1)
Legal tender
13(1)
Lex monetae
14(1)
Money
15(1)
Nominalism
16(1)
Par of exchange
17(1)
Rate of exchange
17(1)
SDR - Special Drawing Right
18(1)
Sterling
18(1)
Unit of account
19(1)
Chapter 3 Sterling: its historical role, and the decline that led to a change in the law 20(17)
Introductory comment
20(1)
Sterling before the 20th century
21(9)
Origin of the pound sterling
21(1)
Nominalism and legal tender: the Case de Mixt Moneys
22(1)
Foreign exchange: gold and silver coinage
23(1)
Enforcement procedure
24(1)
Bank of England notes
24(1)
Market exchange rate
25(1)
Nominalism and inflation: some further remarks
26(3)
The background to Manners v Pearson
29(1)
Continued faith in sterling
29(1)
Sterling in the 20th century
30(5)
Sterling a victim of the Great War
30(1)
Depression in the 1920s
31(1)
End of the gold standard
32(1)
Sterling again a victim of war
32(1)
Bretton Woods
32(1)
Sterling devalues again, followed by the US dollar
33(1)
Sterling exchange controls relaxed
34(1)
Violent sterling/dollar swings
34(1)
Sterling and the European Exchange Rate Mechanism
35(1)
European Currency Unit ('ECU')
35(1)
Sterling in the 21st century
35(2)
Sterling today
35(2)
Chapter 4 The euro zone 37(5)
The importance of the euro
37(1)
The euro: its introduction and its performance
37(1)
Effect of the introduction of the euro on claims
38(1)
Possible contraction of the euro zone
39(1)
Effect of a contraction of the euro zone
39(1)
Further adverse consequences
40(1)
Application of English law to post-euro claims
41(1)
Chapter 5 The change in English law introduced by Miliangos and its forebears 42(21)
The impact of Miliangos
42(1)
Miliangos and the doctrine of precedent
42(1)
The state of English law before Miliangos
42(13)
Manners v Pearson: the perceived need for conversion into sterling
42(2)
The importance of the dates for assessment of damages and conversion into sterling
44(1)
Pre-Miliangos currency conversion for damages for breach of contract
45(1)
Pre-Miliangos currency conversion for damages in tort
46(4)
Currency conversion for debt: the early-20th-century cases
50(2)
A comment on the nature of money in light of the early-20th-century decisions
52(1)
Havana Railways: consolidating the treatment of foreign currency debts
53(2)
The evolution of a new doctrine
55(8)
Havana Railways challenged
55(3)
Miliangos: approval of the new regime
58(5)
Chapter 6 Contract 63(65)
General
63(25)
Monetary contractual claims
63(1)
The governing law
64(6)
The money of account, the money of payment and the lex monetae
70(6)
Identification of the money of account
76(5)
Identification of the money of payment
81(7)
Recovery
88(24)
Nominalism
88(1)
Debts
89(6)
Liquidated damages
95(1)
General damages
96(16)
Particular aspects of contract suits
112(16)
Remoteness of damage
113(2)
Damages in lieu of injunction or specific performance
115(1)
Indemnity
115(1)
Mitigation of damages and avoided loss
116(1)
Tender
117(1)
Set-off
118(1)
Money as a commodity or chattel
118(5)
Gold clauses, protective clauses and other similar protective measures
123(5)
Chapter 7 Tort 128(54)
General considerations
128(3)
LAN
127(1)
Introductory
128(3)
Early uncertainty for tort claims following Miliangos
131(1)
Rome II
131(3)
The relevance of the Rome II Regulation for tort claims
131(3)
The Despina R
134(14)
Overview
134(1)
The Despina R: the issues
135(1)
The Despina R: the Court of Appeal's decision
136(1)
The Despina R: observations on the Court of Appeal's judgment
137(3)
The Despina R: the House of Lords - the choices
140(1)
The Despina R: the final decision - the claimants' currency
141(2)
The Despina R: principles drawn from the case
143(1)
Arguments against assessment in a particular currency
144(1)
The benefit of the decision in The Despina R
145(1)
Unresolved issues relating to an agent's currency
146(2)
Arrangement of final sections
148(1)
Property damage
149(9)
Multiple currency holdings
149(1)
Single currency holdings
150(1)
Notional use of own currency
150(1)
Currency fluctuations
151(1)
Owners' currency depreciates against agents' currency: The Lash Atlantico
151(5)
Exchange control and windfalls: The Nicos V
156(2)
Destruction of chattels
158(3)
General considerations
158(1)
Specific examples of destruction of chattels
159(1)
Conversion
159(1)
Summary for conversion claims
160(1)
Financial loss
161(2)
General considerations
161(1)
Foreign business losses
161(1)
Financial dealings
162(1)
Other tortious claims for financial losses
163(1)
Non-economic loss: Personal injury and defamation claims
163(6)
Introductory
163(1)
Personal injury occurring in the United Kingdom with a foreign currency element
164(2)
Personal injury occurring outside the United Kingdom
166(2)
Summary for personal injury claims where English domestic law governs the assessment of damages
168(1)
Defamation
168(1)
Summary for defamation claims
169(1)
Multiple foreign claimants
169(4)
Personal and company claims
169(2)
Insurance recoveries
171(2)
Foreign law: Where an English court applies a foreign law to a tort claim under Rome II
173(5)
The general case
173(5)
A special case
178(1)
Mitigation
178(2)
Foreign currency and mitigation
178(2)
Summary
180(2)
Summary of the effect of the new regime for tort claims
180(2)
Chapter 8 Restitution and unjust enrichment 182(15)
Introductory
182(1)
Restitution of unjust enrichment
183(7)
Where defendant D's enrichment is money
185(1)
Where defendant D's enrichment consists of services or goods provided pursuant to a contract
185(2)
Where the defendant's enrichment consists of goods or services and there is no contractual guidance as to the appropriate currency in which to make restitution
187(2)
Where C has discharged D's liability
189(1)
The change of position defence
189(1)
Restitution for wrongs
190(3)
Tort
191(2)
Breach of contract, equitable wrongs
193(1)
Disgorgement for civil wrongs
193(1)
Proprietary restitution
194(3)
Personal claims at law after tracing
195(1)
Proprietary claims after tracing at equity
196(1)
Chapter 9 The law of trusts and fiduciaries 197(16)
Introduction
197(1)
Claims available to a beneficiary against a trustee
197(8)
Substitute performance claims
200(2)
Reparative claims
202(3)
Summary of the applicable principles
205(1)
Claims by a beneficiary against third parties
205(5)
Knowing receipt
205(2)
Dishonest assistance
207(1)
Trusteeship de son tort
207(1)
The doctrine in Re Diplock
208(1)
Summary of the applicable principles
208(2)
Claims by a trustee
210(1)
Fiduciaries and receipt of a bribe, secret profit or commission
211(2)
Chapter 10 Claims against limited or common funds 213(25)
Introductory
213(5)
Company liquidation
218(2)
Mutual debts
219(1)
Exchange losses
219(1)
Bankruptcy
220(1)
Mutual debts
220(1)
Exchange losses
220(1)
Limitation of liability
221(4)
Mechanics
221(1)
The limit
222(2)
The claims
224(1)
CMR
225(1)
Priorities
226(1)
Interrelationship with other internationally agreed limits
227(1)
General average
228(2)
Currency of adjustment
230(4)
Determining the currency of the adjustment
230(2)
A single currency
232(2)
Currency of values and expenses
234(4)
Values
234(2)
Expenses
236(1)
Conclusion
236(2)
Chapter 11 Set-off 238(23)
General
238(5)
Introduction
238(3)
The need for foreign currency set-off
241(2)
Pre-insolvency set-off in foreign currency judgments
243(10)
Procedure developed in Admiralty; The Despina R
243(1)
Summary of the Brandon Rule for set-off between Admiralty claims
243(1)
Application of the Brandon Rule for set-off: The Nicos V
244(1)
Outcome of The Nicos V
244(1)
Effect of interest on the Brandon Rule: The Lu Shan
244(2)
Outcome of The Lu Shan
246(1)
Set-off where there is unequal division of blame
246(2)
Summary: set-off procedure where there is unequal division of blame, with subsequent assessment of claims
248(1)
Set-off where claims are assessed before liability is determined
248(1)
Summary: set-off procedure where liability is apportioned after assessment of claims
249(1)
Set-off following payments on account
249(1)
Summary: set-off procedure where payments on account have been made
249(1)
Equitable set-off in general: Fearns v Anglo-Dutch Paint
250(3)
Summary: procedure for equitable set-off
253(1)
Contractual, banker's and legal set-off
253(1)
Alternative pre-insolvency set-off ideas
253(6)
Introduction
253(1)
Substantive defence distinguished from cross-claim
254(1)
Interest based on notional daily set-off
255(2)
Serial set-off between principal elements
257(1)
Set-off under UNIDROIT Principles 2010
258(1)
Insolvency
259(1)
Set-off and insolvency
259(1)
Summary
260(1)
Chapter 12 Interest 261(16)
Overview
261(1)
The purpose of awarding interest
262(1)
Recent developments
262(3)
Before Sempra Metals: the general position
262(1)
Before Sempra Metals: exceptions to the general principle
263(1)
The decision in Sempra Metals
264(1)
The position today
265(1)
The availability of interest
266(1)
Claiming interest: procedural requirements
266(1)
The rate of interest
267(6)
General principles
267(1)
Commercial claims
267(3)
Individuals and personal injury
270(1)
The relationship between the currency of the damages awarded and the rate of interest
270(2)
The appropriate non-sterling rate of interest
272(1)
The period for which interest is awarded
273(2)
Pre-judgment
273(1)
Post-judgment
274(1)
Arbitration awards
275(2)
Pre-award interest
275(1)
Post-award interest
276(1)
Chapter 13 Are currency exchange losses recoverable as damages? 277(15)
The Orthodox View
277(11)
Introduction
277(1)
Majority view and a dissenting view
277(1)
Contract
277(2)
Nominalism
279(2)
Tort
281(1)
English law's opposition to exchange loss claims
282(3)
The foreseeability objection
285(1)
Lips Maritime
286(1)
Procedural considerations: pleading and proving foreign currency losses
287(1)
Note Of Dissent
288(4)
Contract: recoverable exchange loss - the problem
288(3)
Tort
291(1)
Chapter 14 Procedure and evidence 292(39)
General
292(2)
Introductory
292(1)
Neutrality of currency principles
293(1)
Procedure and evidence
294(37)
Pre-action conduct
295(1)
Pleadings
295(6)
Burden of proof
301(4)
Disclosure
305(4)
Elucidation
309(1)
Evidence
310(1)
Offers of settlement
311(7)
Payment into court
318(1)
Interpleader/stakeholder proceedings
319(2)
Judgments
321(1)
Arbitration awards
322(2)
Enforcement of English judgments
324(5)
Enforcement of judgments and awards other than those of the English courts
329(1)
Fact and law
330(1)
Chapter 15 Fiat money, legal tender and alternative money 331(12)
Fiat money and legal tender
331(3)
Fiat money
331(1)
Legal tender in England and Wales
332(2)
Alternative money
334(9)
Forms of alternative money
334(1)
Historical accounts and myths relating to alternative money
335(2)
Dealings in alternative money
337(1)
Disputes relating to alternative money
337(1)
Remedies in relation to alternative money schemes
338(1)
Risks of alternative money schemes
338(1)
Digital currencies, particularly Bitcoin
338(1)
Legal and regulatory issues relating to Bitcoin
339(4)
Index 343
Michael Howard QC is a barrister at Quadrant Chambers in London, where he acts in relation to international commercial disputes and specialises in all aspects of maritime law. He is an arbitrator and the Leader of the English Admiralty Bar. He is also a Visiting Professor of Law at Tulane University, Louisiana; and he has given expert evidence on English law before a number of foreign courts.



John Knott is a consultant at the London head office of international law firm Holman Fenwick Willan, having previously headed up their Admiralty Claims department. He has authored numerous articles dealing with foreign currency claims; and he is a contributor to the Damages title of Halsbury's Laws of England.



John A. Kimbell QC is a barrister at Quadrant Chambers in London and a solicitor (Rechtsanwalt) in Hamburg. His practice encompasses maritime law, aviation, insurance and re-insurance in addition to general commercial litigation and arbitration. He acts as a commercial arbitrator in London and Hamburg.