Preface |
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xv | |
Author |
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xvii | |
Chapter 1 Introduction |
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1 | (22) |
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1.1 Definition and Objectives |
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1 | (3) |
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1.2 Historical Background |
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4 | (5) |
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1.3 International Space Law |
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9 | (4) |
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1.4 Benefits of Environmental Monitoring from Satellite Sensors |
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13 | (6) |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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1.4.3 Multiscale Observations |
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16 | (1) |
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1.4.4 Observations over the Nonvisible Regions of the Spectrum |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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1.4.6 Immediate Transmission |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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1.5 Sources of Information on Remote Sensing Data |
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19 | (2) |
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21 | (2) |
Chapter 2 Physical Principles of Remote Sensing |
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23 | (46) |
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2.1 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Signals |
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23 | (3) |
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2.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum |
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26 | (1) |
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2.3 Terms and Units of Measurement |
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27 | (3) |
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2.4 Electromagnetic Radiation Laws |
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30 | (2) |
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2.5 Spectral Signatures in the Solar Spectrum |
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32 | (17) |
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32 | (6) |
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2.5.2 Vegetation Reflectance |
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38 | (4) |
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2.5.3 Soil Reflectance Properties |
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42 | (4) |
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2.5.4 Water in the Solar Spectrum |
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46 | (3) |
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2.6 Thermal Infrared Domain |
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49 | (4) |
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2.6.1 Characteristics of EM Radiation in the Thermal Infrared |
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49 | (2) |
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2.6.2 Thermal Properties of Vegetation |
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51 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Soils in the Thermal Domain |
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52 | (1) |
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2.6.4 Thermal Signature of Water and Snow |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (8) |
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2.7.1 Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation in the Microwave Region |
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53 | (5) |
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2.7.2 Characteristics of Vegetation in the Microwave Region |
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58 | (1) |
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2.7.3 Characteristics of Soil in the Microwave Region |
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59 | (1) |
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2.7.4 Water and Ice in the Microwave Region |
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60 | (1) |
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2.8 Atmospheric Interactions |
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61 | (5) |
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2.8.1 Atmospheric Absorption |
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63 | (2) |
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2.8.2 Atmospheric Scattering |
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65 | (1) |
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2.8.3 Atmospheric Emission |
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66 | (1) |
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66 | (3) |
Chapter 3 Sensors and Remote Sensing Satellites |
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69 | (58) |
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3.1 Resolution of a Sensor System |
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69 | (8) |
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70 | (3) |
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3.1.2 Spectral Resolution |
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73 | (1) |
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3.1.3 Radiometric Resolution |
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73 | (1) |
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3.1.4 Temporal Resolution |
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74 | (1) |
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75 | (1) |
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3.1.6 Relationship between Different Resolution Types |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (8) |
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3.2.1 Photographic Cameras |
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77 | (4) |
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3.2.2 Cross-Track Scanners |
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81 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Along-Track (Push-Broom) Scanners |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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3.2.5 Microwave Radiometers |
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83 | (2) |
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85 | (14) |
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85 | (8) |
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93 | (6) |
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3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing Missions |
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99 | (25) |
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99 | (2) |
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3.4.2 The Landsat Program |
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101 | (3) |
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104 | (2) |
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3.4.4 Other Medium-Resolution Optical Sensors |
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106 | (2) |
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3.4.5 High-Spatial-Resolution Satellites |
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108 | (3) |
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3.4.6 Geostationary Meteorological Satellites |
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111 | (2) |
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3.4.7 Polar-Orbiting Meteorological Satellites |
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113 | (4) |
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117 | (3) |
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120 | (3) |
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3.4.10 Programs with Hyperspectral Sensors |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (3) |
Chapter 4 Basis for Analyzing EO Satellite Images |
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127 | (22) |
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4.1 Constraints in Using Remote Sensing Data |
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127 | (4) |
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4.1.1 What Can Be Estimated from the EO Images |
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127 | (2) |
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4.1.2 Costs of Data Acquisition |
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129 | (1) |
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4.1.3 End-User Requirements |
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130 | (1) |
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4.2 Types of Interpretation |
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131 | (2) |
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4.2.1 Thematic Classification |
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132 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Generation of Biophysical Variables |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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4.3 Organization of Remote Sensing Project |
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133 | (10) |
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4.3.1 Description of Objectives |
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133 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Scale and Resolution |
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134 | (3) |
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4.3.3 Classification Typology |
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137 | (3) |
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4.3.4 Selection of Imagery |
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140 | (1) |
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4.3.5 Image Formats and Media |
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141 | (1) |
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4.3.6 Selection of Interpretation Method: Visual or Digital Processing? |
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141 | (2) |
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143 | (2) |
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4.5 Presentation of Study Areas |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (2) |
Chapter 5 Visual Interpretation |
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149 | (24) |
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5.1 Characteristics of Photographic Images |
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149 | (1) |
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5.2 Feature Identification |
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149 | (2) |
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5.3 Criteria for Visual Interpretation |
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151 | (14) |
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152 | (1) |
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153 | (4) |
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157 | (3) |
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160 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (2) |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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5.3.9 Period of Acquisition |
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164 | (1) |
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5.4 Elements of Visual Analysis |
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165 | (6) |
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5.4.1 Geometric Characteristics of a Satellite Image |
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165 | (1) |
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5.4.2 Effect of Spatial Resolution in Visual Analysis |
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166 | (1) |
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5.4.3 Effect of Spectral Resolution in Visual Analysis |
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167 | (2) |
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169 | (1) |
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5.4.5 Multitemporal Approaches |
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170 | (1) |
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171 | (2) |
Chapter 6 Digital Image Processing (I): Enhancements and Corrections |
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173 | (86) |
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6.1 Structure of a Digital Image |
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173 | (3) |
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6.2 Media and Data Organization |
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176 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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6.3 Digital Image Processing Systems |
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177 | (2) |
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6.4 General File Operations |
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179 | (10) |
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179 | (3) |
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182 | (2) |
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6.4.3 Image Statistics and Histograms |
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184 | (5) |
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189 | (19) |
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6.5.1 Contrast Enhancement |
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189 | (9) |
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6.5.1.1 Color Lookup Table |
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190 | (2) |
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6.5.1.2 Contrast Compression |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (5) |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (7) |
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201 | (4) |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (2) |
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6.6 Geometric Corrections |
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208 | (18) |
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6.6.1 Sources of Errors in Satellite Acquisitions |
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208 | (3) |
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6.6.2 Georeferencing from Orbital Models |
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211 | (4) |
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6.6.2.1 Image Inclination |
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211 | (2) |
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6.6.2.2 Panoramic Distortion |
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213 | (1) |
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6.6.2.3 Effect of Earth's Curvature |
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214 | (1) |
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6.6.3 Georeferencing from Control Points |
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215 | (11) |
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6.6.3.1 Establishing Control Points |
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216 | (1) |
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6.6.3.2 Calculating the Correction Function |
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217 | (4) |
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6.6.3.3 Generation of the Georeferenced Image |
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221 | (5) |
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6.6.4 Georeferencing with Digital Elevation Models |
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226 | (1) |
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6.7 Radiometric Corrections |
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226 | (27) |
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6.7.1 Solving Missed or Deteriorated Data |
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226 | (4) |
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6.7.1.1 Restoration of Missing Lines and Pixels |
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226 | (2) |
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6.7.1.2 Correction of Striping Effects |
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228 | (2) |
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6.7.2 Conversion from DL to Radiance |
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230 | (2) |
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6.7.3 Calculation of Reflectance |
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232 | (17) |
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6.7.3.1 Simplified Reflectance |
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232 | (2) |
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6.7.3.2 Atmospheric Correction |
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234 | (7) |
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6.7.3.3 Topographic Shadow Corrections |
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241 | (4) |
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6.7.3.4 Correction of Bidirectional Effects |
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245 | (4) |
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6.7.4 Calculation of Temperature |
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249 | (4) |
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253 | (4) |
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257 | (2) |
Chapter 7 Digital Image Processing (II): Generation of Derived Variables |
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259 | (120) |
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7.1 Generation of Continuous Variables |
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259 | (38) |
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7.1.1 Inductive and Deductive Models in Remote Sensing |
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260 | (3) |
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7.1.2 Principal Component Analysis |
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263 | (6) |
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7.1.3 Spectral Vegetation Indices |
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269 | (16) |
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271 | (4) |
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275 | (5) |
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7.1.3.3 Orthogonal-Based VIs |
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280 | (5) |
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7.1.3.4 Fluorescence Indices |
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285 | (1) |
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7.1.4 Other Spectral Indices |
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285 | (1) |
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7.1.5 Extraction of Subpixel Information |
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286 | (7) |
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7.1.6 Lidar Data Processing |
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293 | (4) |
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7.2 Digital Image Classification |
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297 | (44) |
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297 | (2) |
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299 | (15) |
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299 | (2) |
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7.2.2.2 Supervised Classification |
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301 | (3) |
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7.2.2.3 Unsupervised Classification |
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304 | (4) |
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308 | (1) |
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7.2.2.5 Analysis of the Training Statistics |
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309 | (5) |
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314 | (24) |
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7.2.3.1 Minimum-Distance Classifier |
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314 | (1) |
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7.2.3.2 Parallelepiped Classifier |
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315 | (1) |
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7.2.3.3 Maximum Likelihood Classifier |
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316 | (6) |
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7.2.3.4 Decision Tree Classifier |
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322 | (2) |
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324 | (4) |
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7.2.3.6 Fuzzy Classification |
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328 | (2) |
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7.2.3.7 Hyperspectral Classification |
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330 | (4) |
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7.2.3.8 Object-Oriented Classifiers |
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334 | (2) |
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7.2.3.9 Contextual Classifiers |
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336 | (1) |
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7.2.3.10 Postclassification Generalization |
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336 | (2) |
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7.2.4 Classification Outputs |
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338 | (3) |
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7.3 Techniques of Multitemporal Analysis |
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341 | (22) |
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7.3.1 Temporal Domain in Remote Sensing Studies |
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341 | (2) |
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7.3.2 Prerequisites for Multitemporal Analysis |
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343 | (3) |
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7.3.2.1 Multitemporal Matching |
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343 | (2) |
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7.3.2.2 Radiometric Calibration |
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345 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Methods for Seasonal Analysis |
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346 | (4) |
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7.3.4 Change Detection Techniques |
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350 | (13) |
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7.3.4.1 Multitemporal Color Composites |
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351 | (2) |
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7.3.4.2 Image Differencing |
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353 | (1) |
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7.3.4.3 Multitemporal Ratios |
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354 | (1) |
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7.3.4.4 Principal Components |
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354 | (1) |
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7.3.4.5 Regression Analysis |
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355 | (1) |
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7.3.4.6 Change Vector Analysis |
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355 | (4) |
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7.3.4.7 Defining Change Thresholds |
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359 | (1) |
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7.3.4.8 Multitemporal Analysis of Classified Images |
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360 | (3) |
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7.4 Analysis of Spatial Properties |
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363 | (11) |
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7.4.1 Remote Sensing and Landscape Ecology |
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363 | (2) |
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7.4.2 Spatial Metrics for Interval-Scale Images |
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365 | (4) |
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7.4.2.1 Global Metrics for Continuous Data |
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365 | (3) |
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7.4.2.2 Local Metrics for Continuous Data |
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368 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Spatial Metrics for Classified Images |
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369 | (5) |
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7.4.3.1 Global Metrics for Classified Data |
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371 | (1) |
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7.4.3.2 Local Metrics for Classified Data |
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372 | (2) |
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7.4.4 Landscape Structural Dynamics |
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374 | (1) |
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374 | (5) |
Chapter 8 Validation |
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379 | (30) |
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8.1 Relevance of Validating Results |
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379 | (2) |
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381 | (5) |
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381 | (1) |
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381 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Landscape Complexity |
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382 | (1) |
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8.2.4 Verification Process |
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383 | (3) |
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8.3 Methods to Estimate Accuracy |
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386 | (1) |
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387 | (5) |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Sampling Strategies |
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388 | (2) |
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390 | (2) |
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8.5 Gathering Information |
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392 | (1) |
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8.6 Validating Interval-Scale Variables |
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393 | (1) |
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8.7 Validating Classified Images |
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394 | (12) |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (3) |
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8.7.3 User and Producer Accuracy |
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398 | (1) |
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399 | (2) |
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8.7.5 Normalizing the Confusion Matrix |
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401 | (2) |
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8.7.6 Validation of Binary Classes |
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403 | (2) |
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8.7.7 Verification in Multitemporal Analysis |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (3) |
Chapter 9 Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems |
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409 | (10) |
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9.1 Trends in GIS and Remote Sensing Development |
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409 | (2) |
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9.2 GIS as Input for RS Interpretation |
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411 | (1) |
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412 | (3) |
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9.3.1 Availability of Geographic Information |
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412 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Generation of Input Variables |
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413 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Updating the Information |
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414 | (1) |
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9.4 Integration of Satellite Images and GIS |
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415 | (2) |
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417 | (2) |
Appendix |
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419 | (4) |
References |
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423 | (36) |
Index |
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459 | |