| Preface |
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xiii | |
| Acknowledgements |
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xvii | |
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PART 1 HOW GENOMES ARE STUDIED |
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Chapter 1 Genomes, Transcriptomes, And Proteomes |
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1 | (24) |
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2 | (9) |
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3 | (2) |
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DNA is a polymer of nucleotides |
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5 | (1) |
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The discovery of the double helix |
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6 | (2) |
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The double helix is stabilized by base-pairing and base-stacking |
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8 | (1) |
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The double helix has structural flexibility |
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9 | (2) |
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1.2 Rna And The Transcriptome |
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11 | (5) |
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RNA is a second type of polynucleotide |
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11 | (1) |
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The RNA content of the cell |
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12 | (1) |
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Many RNAs are synthesized as precursor molecules |
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13 | (2) |
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There are different definitions of the transcriptome |
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15 | (1) |
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1.3 Proteins And The Proteome |
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16 | (9) |
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There are four hierarchical levels of protein structure |
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16 | (1) |
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Amino acid diversity underlies protein diversity |
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16 | (2) |
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The link between the transcriptome and the proteome |
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18 | (1) |
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The genetic code is not universal |
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19 | (1) |
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The link between the proteome and the biochemistry of the cell |
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20 | (2) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (26) |
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2.1 Enzymes For Dna Manipulation |
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26 | (9) |
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The mode of action of a template-dependent DNA polymerase |
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26 | (2) |
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The types of DNA polymerase used in research |
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28 | (1) |
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Restriction endonucleases enable DNA molecules to be cut at defined positions |
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29 | (3) |
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Gel electrophoresis is used to examine the results of a restriction digest |
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32 | (1) |
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Interesting DNA fragments can be identified by Southern hybridization |
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33 | (1) |
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Ligases join DNA fragments together |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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2.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction |
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35 | (3) |
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36 | (1) |
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The rate of product formation can be followed during a PCR |
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37 | (1) |
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PCR has many and diverse applications |
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38 | (1) |
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38 | (13) |
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Why is gene cloning important? |
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39 | (1) |
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The simplest cloning vectors are based on E. coli plasmids |
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39 | (2) |
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Bacteriophages can also be used as cloning vectors |
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41 | (3) |
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Vectors for longer pieces of DNA |
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44 | (1) |
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DNA can be cloned in organisms other than E. coli |
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45 | (2) |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
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49 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 Mapping Genomes |
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51 | (32) |
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3.1 Why A Genome Map Is Important |
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51 | (2) |
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Genome maps are needed in order to sequence the more complex genomes |
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51 | (1) |
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Genome maps are not just sequencing aids |
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52 | (1) |
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3.2 Markers For Genetic Mapping |
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53 | (6) |
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Genes were the first markers to be used |
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54 | (1) |
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RFLPs and SSLPs are examples of DNA markers |
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55 | (2) |
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Single-nucleotide polymorphisms are the most useful type of DNA marker |
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57 | (2) |
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3.3 The Basis To Genetic Mapping |
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59 | (5) |
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The principles of inheritance and the discovery of linkage |
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59 | (1) |
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Partial linkage is explained by the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis |
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60 | (3) |
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From partial linkage to genetic mapping |
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63 | (1) |
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3.4 Linkage Analysis With Different Types Of Organism |
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64 | (6) |
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Linkage analysis when planned breeding experiments are possible |
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64 | (2) |
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Gene mapping by human pedigree analysis |
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66 | (1) |
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Genetic mapping in bacteria |
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67 | (2) |
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The limitations of linkage analysis |
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69 | (1) |
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3.5 Physical Mapping By Direct Examination Of Dna Molecules |
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70 | (7) |
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Conventional restriction mapping is only applicable to small DNA molecules |
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71 | (1) |
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Optical mapping can locate restriction sites in longer DNA molecules |
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71 | (3) |
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Optical mapping with fluorescent probes |
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74 | (1) |
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Further innovations extend the scope of optical mapping |
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75 | (2) |
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3.6 Physical Mapping By Assigning Markers To Dna Fragments |
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77 | (6) |
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Any unique sequence can be used as an STS |
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77 | (1) |
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DNA fragments for STS mapping can be obtained as radiation hybrids |
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78 | (1) |
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A clone library can be used as the mapping reagent |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (2) |
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Chapter 4 Sequencing Genomes |
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83 | (30) |
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4.1 Methodology For Dna Sequencing |
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83 | (10) |
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Chain-termination sequencing of PCR products |
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83 | (3) |
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Illumina sequencing is the most popular short-read method |
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86 | (2) |
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A variety of other short-read sequencing methods have been devised |
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88 | (2) |
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Single-molecule real-time sequencing provides reads up to 200 kb in length |
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90 | (2) |
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Nanopore sequencing is currently the longest long-read method |
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92 | (1) |
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4.2 How To Sequence A Genome |
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93 | (8) |
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The potential of the shotgun method was proven by the Haemophilus influenzae seq uence |
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93 | (2) |
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Many prokaryotic genomes have been sequenced by the shotgun method |
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95 | (1) |
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Shotgun sequencing of eukaryotic genomes requires sophisticated assembly programs |
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95 | (2) |
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From contigs to scaffolds |
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97 | (2) |
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What is a `genome sequence' and do we always need one? |
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99 | (2) |
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4.3 Sequencing The Human Genome |
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101 | (12) |
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The Human Genome Project - genome sequencing in the heroic age |
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102 | (2) |
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The human genome - genome sequencing in the modern age |
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104 | (2) |
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The Neanderthal genome - assembly of an extinct genome using the human sequence as a reference |
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106 | (1) |
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The human genome-new challenges |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (3) |
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Chapter 5 Genome Annotation |
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113 | (18) |
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5.1 Genome Annotation By Computer Analysis Of The Dna Sequence |
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113 | (6) |
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The coding regions of genes are open reading frames |
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113 | (1) |
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Simple ORF scans are less effective with genomes of higher eukaryotes |
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114 | (2) |
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Locating genes for noncoding RNA |
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116 | (1) |
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Homology searches and comparative genomics give an extra dimension to gene prediction |
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117 | (2) |
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5.2 Genome Annotation By Analysis Of Gene Transcripts |
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119 | (2) |
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Hybridization tests can determine if a fragment contains one or more genes |
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119 | (1) |
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Methods are available for precise mapping of the ends of transcripts |
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120 | (1) |
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Exon-intron boundaries can also be located with precision |
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121 | (1) |
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5.3 Annotation By Genome-Wide Rna Mapping |
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121 | (5) |
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Tiling arrays enable transcripts to be mapped on to chromosomes or entire genomes |
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122 | (1) |
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Transcript sequences can be directly mapped onto a genome |
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123 | (2) |
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Obtaining transcript sequences by SAGE and CAGE |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (5) |
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128 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 Identifying Gene Functions |
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131 | (22) |
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6.1 Computer Analysis Of Gene Function |
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131 | (4) |
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Homology reflects evolutionary relationships |
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131 | (1) |
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Homology analysis can provide information on the function of a gene |
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132 | (1) |
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Identification of protein domains can help to assign function to an unknown gene |
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133 | (1) |
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Annotation of gene function requires a common terminology |
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134 | (1) |
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6.2 Assigning Function By Gene Inactivation And Overexpression |
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135 | (7) |
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Functional analysis by gene inactivation |
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136 | (1) |
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Gene inactivation by genome editing |
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136 | (1) |
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Gene inactivation by homologous recombination |
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137 | (1) |
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Gene inactivation by transposon tagging and RNA interference |
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138 | (1) |
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Gene overexpression can also be used to assess function |
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139 | (1) |
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The phenotypic effect of gene inactivation or overexpression may be difficult to discern |
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140 | (2) |
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6.3 Understanding Gene Function By Studies Of Its Expression Pattern And Protein Product |
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142 | (5) |
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Reporter genes and immunocytochemistry can be used to locate where and when genes are expressed |
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142 | (1) |
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Crispr can be used to make specific changes in a gene and the protein it encodes |
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143 | (2) |
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Other methods for site-directed mutagenesis |
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145 | (2) |
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6.4 Using Conventional Genetic Analysis To Identify Gene Function |
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147 | (6) |
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Identification of human genes responsible for inherited diseases |
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147 | (2) |
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Genome-wide association studies can also identify genes for diseases and other traits |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (1) |
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Chapter 7 Eukaryotic Nuclear Genomes |
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153 | (22) |
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7.1 Nuclear Genomes Are Contained In Chromosomes |
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153 | (5) |
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Chromosomes are made of DNA and protein |
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153 | (2) |
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The special features of metaphase chromosomes |
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155 | (2) |
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Centromeres and telomeres have distinctive DNA sequences |
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157 | (1) |
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7.2 The Genetic Features Of Nuclear Genomes |
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158 | (11) |
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Gene numbers can be misleading |
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158 | (2) |
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Genes are not evenly distributed within a genome |
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160 | (1) |
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A segment of the human genome |
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161 | (2) |
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The yeast genome is very compact |
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163 | (2) |
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Gene organization in other eukaryotes |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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Pseudogenes and other evolutionary relics |
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167 | (2) |
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7.3 The Repetitive Dna Content Of Eukaryotic Nuclear Genomes |
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169 | (6) |
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Tandemly repeated DNA is found at centromeres and elsewhere in eukaryotic chromosomes |
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169 | (1) |
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Minisatellites and microsatellites |
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170 | (1) |
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171 | (1) |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (1) |
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173 | (1) |
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173 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Genomes Of Prokaryotes And Eukaryotic Organelles |
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175 | (24) |
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8.1 The Physical Features Of Prokaryotic Genomes |
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175 | (5) |
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The traditional view of the prokaryotic chromosome |
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175 | (2) |
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Some bacteria have linear or multipartite genomes |
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177 | (3) |
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8.2 The Genetic Features Of Prokaryotic Genomes |
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180 | (9) |
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Gene organization in the E. coli K12 genome |
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180 | (2) |
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Operons are characteristic features of prokaryotic genomes |
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182 | (2) |
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Prokaryotic genome sizes and gene numbers vary according to biological complexity |
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184 | (1) |
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Genome sizes and gene numbers vary within individual species |
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185 | (1) |
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Distinctions between prokaryotic species are further blurred by horizontal gene transfer |
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186 | (2) |
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Metagenomes describe the members of a community |
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188 | (1) |
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8.3 Eukaryotic Organelle Genomes |
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189 | (10) |
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The endosymbiont theory explains the origin of organelle genomes |
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190 | (1) |
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The physical and genetic features of organelle genomes |
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191 | (4) |
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195 | (1) |
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195 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (3) |
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Chapter 9 Virus Genomes And Mobile Genetic Elements |
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199 | (16) |
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9.1 The Genomes Of Bacteriophages And Eukaryotic Viruses |
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199 | (7) |
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Bacteriophage genomes have diverse structures and organizations |
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199 | (2) |
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Replication strategies for bacteriophage genomes |
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201 | (1) |
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Structures and replication strategies for eukaryotic viral genomes |
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202 | (2) |
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Some retroviruses cause cancer |
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204 | (1) |
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Genomes at the edge of life |
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205 | (1) |
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9.2 Mobile Genetic Elements |
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206 | (9) |
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RNA transposons with long terminal repeats are related to viral retroelements |
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206 | (2) |
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Some RNA transposons lack LTRs |
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208 | (1) |
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DNA transposons are common in prokaryotic genomes |
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209 | (2) |
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DNA transposons are less common in eukaryotic genomes |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (1) |
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PART 3 HOW GENOMES ARE EXPRESSED |
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Chapter 10 Accessing The Genome |
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215 | (24) |
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215 | (9) |
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The nucleus has an ordered internal structure |
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216 | (1) |
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Chromosomal DNA displays different degrees of packaging |
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217 | (1) |
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The nuclear matrix is a dynamic structure |
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218 | (2) |
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Each chromosome has its own territory within the nucleus |
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220 | (1) |
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Chromosomal DNA is organized into topologically associating domains |
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221 | (2) |
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Insulators prevent crosstalk between segments of chromosomal DNA |
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223 | (1) |
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10.2 Nucleosome Modifications And Genome Expression |
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224 | (7) |
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Acetylation of histones influences many nuclear activities, including genome expression |
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225 | (1) |
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Histone deacetylation represses active regions of the genome |
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226 | (1) |
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Acetylation is not the only type of histone modification |
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227 | (3) |
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Nucleosome repositioning also influences gene expression |
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230 | (1) |
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10.3 Dna Modification And Genome Expression |
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231 | (8) |
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Genome silencing by DNA methylation |
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231 | (1) |
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Methylation is involved in genomic imprinting and X inactivation |
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232 | (2) |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (3) |
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Chapter 11 The Role Of Dna-Binding Proteins In Genome Expression |
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239 | (18) |
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11.1 Methods For Studying Dna-Binding Proteins And Their Attachment Sites |
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239 | (6) |
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X-ray crystallography provides structural data for any protein that can be crystallized |
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239 | (1) |
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NMR spectroscopy is used to study the structures of small proteins |
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240 | (1) |
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Gel retardation identifies DNA fragments that bind to proteins |
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241 | (1) |
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Protection assays pinpoint binding sites with greater accuracy |
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242 | (2) |
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Modification interference identifies nucleotides central to protein binding |
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244 | (1) |
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Genome-wide scans for protein attachment sites |
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245 | (1) |
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11.2 The Special Features Of Dna-Binding Proteins |
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245 | (4) |
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The helix-turn-helix motif is present in prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins |
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246 | (2) |
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Zinc fingers are common in eukaryotic proteins |
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248 | (1) |
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Other nucleic acid-binding motifs |
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248 | (1) |
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11.3 The Interaction Between Dna And Its Binding Proteins |
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249 | (8) |
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Contacts between DNA and proteins |
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250 | (1) |
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Direct readout of the nucleotide sequence |
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250 | (1) |
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The conformation of the helix also influences protein binding |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
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253 | (1) |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (3) |
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Chapter 12 Transcriptomes |
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257 | (42) |
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12.1 The Components Of The Transcriptome |
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257 | (5) |
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The mRNA fraction of a transcriptome is small but complex |
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257 | (1) |
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Short noncoding RNAs have diverse functions |
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258 | (2) |
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Long noncoding RNAs are enigmatic transcripts |
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260 | (2) |
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12.2 Transcriptomics: Cataloging The Transcriptomes Of Cells And Tissues |
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262 | (6) |
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Microarray analysis and RNA sequencing are used to study the contents of transcriptomes |
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262 | (2) |
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Single-cell studies add greater precision to transcriptomics |
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264 | (2) |
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Spatial transcriptomics enables transcripts to be mapped directly in tissues and cells |
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266 | (2) |
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12.3 Synthesis Of The Components Of The Transcriptome |
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268 | (12) |
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RNA polymerases are molecular machines for making RNA |
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268 | (2) |
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Transcription start-points are indicated by promoter sequences |
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270 | (3) |
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Synthesis of bacterial RNA is regulated by repressor and activator proteins |
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273 | (3) |
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Synthesis of bacterial RNA is also regulated by control over transcription termination |
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276 | (1) |
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Synthesis of eukaryotic RNA is regulated primarily by activator proteins |
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277 | (3) |
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12.4 The Influence Of Rna Splicing On The Composition Of A Transcriptome |
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280 | (7) |
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The splicing pathway for eukaryotic pre-mRNA introns |
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281 | (1) |
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The splicing process must have a high degree of precision |
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282 | (2) |
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Enhancer and silencer elements specify alternative splicing pathways |
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284 | (2) |
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Backsplicing gives rise to circular RNAs |
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286 | (1) |
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12.5 The Influence Of Chemical Modification On The Composition Of A Transcriptome |
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287 | (3) |
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RNA editing alters the coding properties of some transcripts |
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287 | (2) |
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Chemical modifications that do not affect the sequence of an mRNA |
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289 | (1) |
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12.6 Degradation Of The Components Of The Transcriptome |
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290 | (9) |
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Several processes are known for nonspecific RNA turnover |
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291 | (1) |
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RNA silencing was first identified as a means of destroying invading viral RNA |
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292 | (1) |
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MicroRNAs regulate genome expression by causing specific target mRNAs to be degraded |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (3) |
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299 | (36) |
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13.1 Studying The Composition Of A Proteome |
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299 | (8) |
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The separation stage of a protein profiling project |
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300 | (3) |
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The identification stage of a protein profiling project |
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303 | (2) |
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Comparing the compositions of two proteomes |
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305 | (1) |
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Analytical protein arrays offer an alternative approach to protein profiling |
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306 | (1) |
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13.2 Identifying Proteins That Interact With One Another |
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307 | (6) |
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Identifying pairs of interacting proteins |
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307 | (2) |
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Identifying the components of multiprotein complexes |
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309 | (2) |
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Identifying proteins with functional interactions |
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311 | (1) |
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Protein interaction maps display the interactions within a proteome |
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311 | (2) |
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13.3 Synthesis And Degradation Of The Components Of The Proteome |
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313 | (7) |
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Ribosomes are molecular machines for making proteins |
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313 | (3) |
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During stress, bacteria inactivate their ribosomes in order to downsize the proteome |
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316 | (1) |
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Initiation factors mediate large-scale remodeling of eukaryotic proteomes |
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317 | (1) |
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The translation of individual mRNAs can also be regulated |
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318 | (2) |
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Degradation of the components of the proteome |
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320 | (1) |
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13.4 The Influence Of Protein Processing On The Composition Of The Proteome |
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320 | (6) |
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The amino acid sequence contains instructions for protein folding |
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321 | (3) |
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Some proteins undergo proteolytic cleavage |
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324 | (1) |
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Important changes in protein activity can be brought about by chemical modification |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (9) |
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The metabolome is the complete set of metabolites present in a cell |
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327 | (1) |
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Systems biology provides an integrated description of cellular activity |
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327 | (3) |
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330 | (1) |
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331 | (1) |
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332 | (1) |
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332 | (3) |
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Chapter 14 Genome Expression In The Context Of Cell And Organism |
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335 | (26) |
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14.1 The Response Of The Genome To External Signals |
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335 | (6) |
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Signal transmission by import of the extracellular signaling compound |
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336 | (1) |
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Receptor proteins transmit signals across cell membranes |
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337 | (2) |
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Some signal transduction pathways have few steps between receptor and genome |
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339 | (1) |
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Some signal transduction pathways have many steps between receptor and genome |
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340 | (1) |
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Some signal transduction pathways operate via second messengers |
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341 | (1) |
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14.2 Changes In Genome Activity Resulting In Cellular Differentiation |
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341 | (5) |
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Some differentiation processes involve changes to chromatin structure |
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341 | (2) |
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Yeast mating types are determined by gene conversion events |
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343 | (1) |
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Genome rearrangements are responsible for immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor diversities |
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344 | (2) |
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14.3 Changes In Genome Activity Underlying Development |
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346 | (15) |
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Bacteriophage X: a genetic switch enables a choice to be made between alternative developmental pathways |
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347 | (1) |
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Bacillus sporulation: coordination of activities in two distinct cell types |
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348 | (3) |
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Caenorhabditis elegans: the genetic basis to positional information and the determination of cell fate |
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351 | (2) |
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Fruit flies: conversion of positional information into a segmented body plan |
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353 | (1) |
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Homeotic selector genes are universal features of higher eukaryotic development |
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354 | (2) |
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Homeotic genes also underlie plant development |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (2) |
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PART 4 HOW GENOMES REPLICATE AND EVOLVE |
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Chapter 15 Genome Replication |
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361 | (32) |
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15.1 The Topology Of Genome Replication |
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361 | (7) |
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The double-helix structure complicates the replication process |
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362 | (1) |
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The Meselson--Stahl experiment proved that replication is semiconservative |
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363 | (2) |
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DNA topoisomerases provide a solution to the topological problem |
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365 | (2) |
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Variations on the semiconservative theme |
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367 | (1) |
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15.2 The Initiation Phase Of Genome Replication |
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368 | (3) |
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Initiation at the E. coli origin of replication |
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368 | (1) |
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Origins of replication have been clearly defined in yeast |
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369 | (1) |
|
Origins in higher eukaryotes have been less easy to identify |
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370 | (1) |
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15.3 Events At The Replication Fork |
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371 | (5) |
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DNA polymerases are molecular machines for making (and degrading) DNA |
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371 | (2) |
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DNA polymerases have limitations that complicate genome replication |
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373 | (1) |
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Okazaki fragments must be joined together to complete lagging-strand replication |
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374 | (2) |
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15.4 Termination Of Genome Replication |
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376 | (8) |
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Replication of the E. coli genome terminates within a defined region |
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376 | (2) |
|
Completion of genome replication |
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378 | (2) |
|
Telomerase completes replication of chromosomal DNA molecules, at least in some cells |
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380 | (2) |
|
Telomere length is implicated in cell senescence and cancer |
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382 | (1) |
|
Drosophila has a unique solution to the end-shortening problem |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
15.5 Regulation Of Eukaryotic Genome Replication |
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|
384 | (9) |
|
Genome replication must be synchronized with the cell cycle |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
Origin licensing is the prerequisite for passing the G1-S checkpoint |
|
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385 | (1) |
|
Replication origins do not all fire at the same time |
|
|
386 | (2) |
|
The cell has various options if the genome is damaged |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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389 | (1) |
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390 | (1) |
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390 | (3) |
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Chapter 16 Recombination And Transposition |
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|
393 | (16) |
|
16.1 Homologous Recombination |
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393 | (7) |
|
The Holliday and Meselson-Radding models for homologous recombination |
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|
394 | (2) |
|
The double-strand break model for homologous recombination |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
RecBCD is the most important pathway for homologous recombination in bacteria |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
E. coli has alternative pathways for homologous recombination |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
Homologous recombination pathways in eukaryotes |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
16.2 Site-Specific Recombination |
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|
400 | (2) |
|
Bacteriophage X uses site-specific recombination during the lysogenic infection cycle |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Site-specific recombination is an aid in construction of genetically modified plants |
|
|
401 | (1) |
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|
402 | (7) |
|
Replicative and conservative transposition of DNA transposons |
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
Retroelements transpose replicatively via an RNA intermediate |
|
|
403 | (2) |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (1) |
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406 | (1) |
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|
406 | (3) |
|
Chapter 17 Mutations And Dna Repair |
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|
409 | (22) |
|
17.1 The Causes Of Mutations |
|
|
409 | (9) |
|
Errors in replication are a source of point mutations |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Replication errors can also lead to insertion and deletion mutations |
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
Mutations are also caused by chemical and physical mutagens |
|
|
413 | (5) |
|
17.2 Repair Of Mutations And Other Types Of Dna Damage |
|
|
418 | (13) |
|
Direct repair systems fill in nicks and correct some types of nucleotide modification |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
Base excision repairs many types of damaged nucleotide |
|
|
419 | (2) |
|
Nucleotide excision repair is used to correct more extensive types of damage |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Mismatch repair corrects replication errors |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
Single- and double-strand breaks can be repaired |
|
|
423 | (2) |
|
Some types of damage can be repaired by homologous recombination |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
If necessary, DNA damage can be bypassed during genome replication |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
Defects in DNA repair underlie human diseases, including cancers |
|
|
427 | (1) |
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|
427 | (1) |
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|
428 | (1) |
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|
429 | (1) |
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|
429 | (2) |
|
Chapter 18 How Genomes Evolve |
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|
431 | (34) |
|
18.1 Genomes: The First 10 Billion Years |
|
|
431 | (5) |
|
The first biochemical systems were centered on RNA |
|
|
431 | (2) |
|
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
|
|
434 | (2) |
|
18.2 The Evolution Of Increasingly Complex Genomes |
|
|
436 | (15) |
|
Genome sequences provide extensive evidence of past gene duplications |
|
|
436 | (3) |
|
A variety of processes could result in gene duplication |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
Whole-genome duplication is also possible |
|
|
440 | (3) |
|
Smaller duplications can also be identified in the human genome and other genomes |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes acquire genes from other species |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
Genome evolution also involves rearrangement of existing gene sequences |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
There are competing hypotheses for the origins of introns |
|
|
448 | (2) |
|
The evolution of the epigenome |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
18.3 Genomes: The Last 6 Million Years |
|
|
451 | (4) |
|
The human genome is very similar to that of the chimpanzee |
|
|
451 | (2) |
|
Paleogenomics is helping us understand the recent evolution of the human genome |
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
18.4 Genomes Today: Diversity In Populations |
|
|
455 | (10) |
|
|
|
455 | (2) |
|
The first migrations of humans out of Africa |
|
|
457 | (2) |
|
The diversity of plant genomes is an aid in crop breeding |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
|
|
460 | (2) |
|
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
|
|
463 | (2) |
| Glossary |
|
465 | (44) |
| Index |
|
509 | |
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