Global Biogeochemical Cycles in the Climate System [Kietas viršelis]

Contributors xiii Foreword xv Paul J. Crutzen Preface xvii David Schimel Introduction Uncertainties of Global Biogeochemical Predictions 3(12) E. D. Schulze D. S. S. Schimel Introduction 3(1) The IGBP Transect Approach 3(3) The Patagonian Transect 3(2) The Australian Transect 5(1) The European Transect 5(1) Variability in Processes 6(4) Biome Approach and Functional Types 10(1) New Approaches to Functional Diversity 10(2) Conclusions 12(3) References 14(1) Uncertainties of Global Climate Predictions 15(16) L. Bengtsson Introduction 15(1) Observational Evidence 16(1) Physical Rationale 17(3) Stochastic Forcing 17(1) Solar irradiation Changes 18(1) Volcanic Effects 18(2) Anthropogenic Effects 20(1) Response to Forcing of the Climate System 20(3) Results from Climate Change Prediction Experiments 23(3) Summary and Conclusions 26(5) References 27(4) Uncertainties in the Atmospheric Chemical System 31(10) G. P. Brasseur E. A. H. Holland Introduction 31(1) Synthetic View of Chemical Processes in the Troposphere 32(1) The IMAGES Model 33(1) Changes in the Chemical Composition of the Global Troposphere 34(5) Concluding Remarks 39(2) References 39(2) Inferring Biogeochemical Sources and Sinks from Atmospheric Concentrations: General Consideration and Applications in Vegetation Canopies 41(20) M. Raupach Introduction 41(2) Scalar and Isotopic Molar Balances 43(4) General Principles 43(1) Single-Point Eulerian Equations 44(1) Source Terms for CO2 45(1) Single-Point Lagrangian Equations 45(2) Inverse Methods for Inferring Scalar Sources and Sinks in Canopies 47(6) General Principles 47(1) Localized Near Field Theory 47(1) The Dispersion Matrix 48(1) Turbulent Velocity Field 49(1) Solutions for Forward, Inverse and Implicit Problems 50(2) Field Tests 52(1) Inverse Methods and Isotopes in Canopies 53(2) Path Integrals and Keeling Plots 53(1) Inverse Lagrangian Analysis of Isotopic Composition 54(1) Summary and Conclusions 55(6) Appendix A 57(1) Appendix B 57(1) References 58(3) Biogeophysical Feedbacks and the Dynamics of Climate 61(12) M. Claussen Introduction 61(1) Synergisms 62(2) High Northern Latitudes 62(1) Subtropics 62(2) Multiple Equilibria 64(2) Transient Interaction 66(1) Perspectives 67(6) References 69(4) Land-Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions and Monsoon Climate Change: A Paleo-Perspective 73(14) J. E. Kutzbach Michael T. Coe S. P. Harrison M. T. Coe Introduction 73(2) Response of the Monsoon to Orbital Forcing 75(1) Ocean Feedbacks on the Monsoon 76(1) Land-Surface Feedbacks on the Monsoon 77(4) Synergies between the Land, Ocean and Atmosphere 81(1) The Role of Climate Variability 81(2) Final Remarks 83(4) References 83(4) Paleobiogeochemistry, I. C. Prentice 87(28) D. Raynaud Introduction 87(2) Methane 89(1) Carbon Dioxide 89(1) Mineral Dust Aerosol 90(1) Scientific Challenges Posed by the Ice-Core Records 91(1) Methane 91(1) Carbon Dioxide 91(1) Mineral Dust Aerosol 92(1) Towards an Integrated Research Strategy for Palaeobiogeochemistry 92(4) References 93(3) Should Phosphorus Availability Be Constraining Moist Tropical Forest Responses to Increasing CO2 Concentrations? J. Lloyd M. I. Bird E. M. Veenendaal B. Kruijt Introduction 96(1) Phosphorus in the Soils of the Moist Tropics 96(2) Soil Organic Phosphorus 96(1) Soil Inorganic Phosphorus 97(1) Soil Carbon/Phosphorus Interactions 97(1) States and Fluxes of Phosphorus in Moist Tropical Forests 98(5) Inputs and Losses of Phosphorus Through Rainfall, Dry Deposition and Weathering: Losses Via Leaching 98(2) Internal Phosphorus Flows in Moist Tropical Forests 100(2) Mechanisms for Enhanced Phosphorus Uptake in Low P Soils 102(1) Linking the Phosphorus and Carbon Cycles 103(12) To What Extent Does Phosphorus Availability Really Limit Moist Tropical Forest Productivity? 103(1) Tropical Plant Responses to Increases in Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations 104(1) Using a Simple Model to Examine CO2/Phosphorus Interactions in Tropical Forests 105(4) References 109(6) Trees in Grasslands: Biogeochemical Consequences of Woody Plant Expansion 115(52) S. Archer T. W. Boutton K. A. Hibbard Introduction 115(1) Woody Plant Encroachment in Grasslands and Savannas 116(2) The La Copita Case Study 118(9) Biogeographical and Historal Context 118(1) Herbaceous Retrogression and Soil Carbon Losses 118(1) Woody Plant Encroachment and Ecosystem Biogeochemistry 119(8) Degradation: Ecological Versus Socioeconomic 127(1) Implications for Ecosystem and Natural Resources Management 128(1) Summary 129(10) References 130(9) Biogeochemistry in the Arctic: Patterns, Processes and Controls S. Jonasson F.S. Chapin, III G. R. Shaver Introduction 139(1) Tundra Organic Matter 139(3) Distribution of Organic Matter 139(2) Patterns and Controls of Organic Matter Turnover between Ecosystem Types 141(1) Tundra Nutrients 142(3) Nutrient Distribution and Controls of Nutrient Cycling 142(1) Nutrient Mineralization and Plant Nutrient Uptake 142(1) Are there Unaccounted Plant Sources of Limiting Nutrients? 143(2) Biogeochemical Responses to Experimental Ecosystem Manipulations 145(3) Applicability of Experimental Manipulations 145(1) Responses to Water Applications 145(1) Response to Nutrient Addition and Warming 145(2) Responses in Ecosystem Carbon Balance 147(1) Summary 148(3) References 148(3) Evaporation in the Boreal Zone During Summer---Physics and Vegetation F. M. Kelliher J. Lloyd C. Rebmann C. Wirth E. D. Schulze D. D. Baldocchi Introduction 151(1) Climate and Soil Water 152(4) Evaporation Theory 156(2) Evaporation During Summer and Rainfall 158(2) Forest Evaporation, Tree Life Form and Nitrogen 160(2) Conclusions 162(5) References 162(5) Past and Future Forest Response to Rapid Climate Change 167(10) M. B. Davis Introduction 167(1) Long-Distance Dispersal 168(2) Estimating Jump Distances 170(1) Interactions with Resident Vegetation - Constraints on Establishment 171(1) Interactions with Resident Vegetation - Competition for Light and Resulting Constraints on Population Growth 172(1) Conclusions 173(4) References 174(3) Biogeochemical Models: Implicit vs. Explicit Microbiology 177(8) J. Schimel Introduction 177(1) Microbiology in Biogeochemical Models 177(1) Dealing with Microbial Diversity in Models 178(1) Kinetic Effects of Microbial Population Size 178(2) Microbial Recovery from Stress 180(1) Conclusions 181(4) References 182(3) The Global Soil Organic Carbon Pool 185(32) M. I. Bird H. Santruckova J. Lloyd E. M. Veenendaal Introduction: the Soil Carbon Pool and Global Change 185(1) Factors Affecting the Distribution of Soil Organic Carbon 186(1) Global Variations in the SOC Pool 187(3) The Limitations of Available Observational SOC Data 190(1) A Stratified Sampling Approach 191(6) Conclusions: Sandworld and Clayworld 197(4) References 197(4) Plant Compounds and Their Turnover and Stability as Soil Organic Matter G. Gleixner C. Czimczik C. Kramer B. M. Luhker M. W. I. Schmidt Introduction 201(1) Pathways of Soil Organic Matter Formation 201(7) Formation and Decomposition of Biomass 201(5) The Influence of Environmental Conditions on SOM Formation 206(1) Formation of Black Carbon 206(2) Stabilization of Soil Organic Matter 208(3) Chemical Stability of Molecules 209(1) Stabilization of SOM by Interactions With the Soil Matrix 210(1) Biological Stabilization of Organic Matter in Soils 210(1) Turnover of Soil Organic Matter 211(2) Conclusion 213(4) References 213(4) Input/Output Balances and Nitrogen Limitation in Terrestrial Ecosystems 217(10) P. M. Vitousek C. B. Field Abstract 217(1) Long-term Nutrient Limitation 218(1) A Simple Model 219(1) Pathways of N Loss 219(3) Constraints to N Fixation 222(1) Conclusions 222(5) References 223(4) Interactions Between Hillslope Hydrochemistry, Nitrogen Dynamics and Plants in Fennoscandian Boreal Forest 227(8) P. Hogberg Introduction 227(1) A Historical Perspective 227(1) Nitrogen Supply and Forest Productivity in a Landscape Perspective: Hypotheses 228(2) Interactions Between Hydrochemistry, N Dynamics and Plants at Betsele - a Model System 230(1) Experimental Evidence 231(1) Conclusions 232(3) References 232(3) The Cycle of Atmospheric Molecular Oxygen and its Isotopes 235(10) M. Heimann Introduction 235(1) Molecular Atmospheric Oxygen 235(5) Overview 235(1) Measurement Techniques 236(1) Global Atmpospheric Trends in CO2 and O2 237(1) Seasonal Cycles and Mean Annual Spatial Gradients 238(1) Continental Dilution of The Oceanic O2 / N2 Signal 239(1) The Stable Isotopes of Oxygen 240(2) Overview 240(1) 18O and CO2 241(1) The Dole Effect 241(1) 17O 242(1) Integrative Research Approach 242(3) References 243(2) Constraining the Global Carbon Budget from Global to Regional Scales - the Measurement Challenge 245(22) R. J. Francey P. J. Rayner C. E. Allison Introduction 245(1) Present Status of Global C-Models 245(2) Global CO2-Measurements 247(2) The Global CO2-Measuring Network 249(4) References 252(1) Carbon Isotope Discrimination of Terrestrial Ecosystems - How Well do Observed and Modeled Results Match? N. Buchmann J. O. Kaplan Introduction 253(1) Experimental and Analytical Methods 253(2) Description of the Model 255(1) 13C Signature of Ecosystem Respiration 255(1) Modeled Ecosystem Carbon Discrimination 256(2) Comparison of Observed and Modeled De Estimates 258(3) Differences Due to Vegetation and PFT Distribution 259(1) Differences Due to Vegetation Change 260(1) Differences Due to The Water Regime 260(1) Differences Due to Selection of Field Sites 261(1) Ecophysiological Information of Δe 261(1) Conclusions 262(5) References 265(2) Photosynthetic Pathways and Climate 267(12) J. R. Ehleringer T. E. Cerling Introduction 267(1) A Physiological Basis for C3/C4 Plant Distributions 268(1) A Brief History of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels 268(1) Recognizing the Presence of C3 and C4 Ecosystems in the Paleorecord 269(1) The Global Expansion of C4 Ecosystems 270(2) C3/C4 Dynamics During Glacial-Interglacial Periods 272(2) Photosynthetic Pathway Distribution in The Modern World 274(1) Photosynthetic Pathway Impacts Herbivores 274(1) Summary 275(4) References 276(3) Biological Diversity, Evolution and Biogeochemistry 279(6) H. A. Mooney What Do We Have and What Are We Losing? 279(1) Do Species Losses Matter for Biogeochemical Cycling? 279(1) From First Principles - No 279(1) From First Principles - Yes 280(1) Kinds of Diversity 280(1) Structural Diversity 280(1) Chemical Diversity 280(1) Functional - Type Diversity 281(1) The Evolution of Functional Diversity 281(1) The Changing Atmosphere 281(1) Getting on Land 281(1) Cellulose 281(1) Evolution of Polyphenolic Compounds 281(1) The Build Up of Carbon and Evolution of Decomposers 282(1) The Evolution of Angiosperms and Insects 282(1) Analysis of the Role of Diversity and Biogeochemistry 283(1) Direct Tests 283(1) Field Inferences 283(1) Summary 283(2) References 182(103) Atmospheric Perspectives on the Ocean Carbon Cycle 285(10) P. J. Rayner Introduction 285(1) Long-term Mean Ocean Uptake 285(5) Global and Temporal Perspective 285(3) Spatial Perspectives 288(2) Interannual Variability 290(3) Summary and Conclusions 293(2) References 293(2) International Instruments for the Protection of the Climate and Their National Implementation 295(8) R. Wolfrum Introduction 295(1) Commitments of States Parties Under the Climate Change Regime 295(2) Implementation Measures 297(2) Monitoring Compliance and Enforcement 299(1) The Kyoto Protocol as a Learning Treaty 300(1) Conclusions 300(3) A New Tool to Characterizing and Managing Risks 303(14) O. Renn A. Klinke G. Busch F. Beese G. Lammel Introduction 303(1) Risk Evaluation and Risk Classification 304(2) Main Characteristics of Risk Evaluation 304(1) Rational Risk Evaluation 304(1) Additional Criteria of Risk Evaluation 305(1) Risk Classification 305(1) Risk Management 306(4) Strategies and Instruments for the Risk Type ``Sword of Damocles 306(1) Strategies and Instruments for the Risk Type ``Cyclop 307(1) Strategies and Instruments for the Risk Type ``Pythia 308(1) Strategies and Instruments for the Risk Type ``Pandoras Box 308(1) Strategies and Instruments for the Risk Type ``Cassandra 309(1) Strategies and Instruments for the Risk Type ``Medusa 310(1) Application to Environmental Risk of Substances 310(4) Global Biogeochemical Cycles are Influenced Due to Human Activity 310(1) Risk Classification of Environmental Risks of Substances 310(1) Forest Ecosystems are Influenced by Changing Biogeochemical Cycles 310(1) Changing Patterns of Nitrogen and Sulfur Deposition 311(1) Exceedance of Forest Soils Buffering Capacity 312(1) Nitrogen Deposition on Nutrient Deficient and Acid Sensitive Soils 313(1) Conclusion 313(1) Some Conclusions for a Deliberative Process 314(3) References 314(3) Contrasting Approaches: The Ozone Layer, Climate Change and Resolving The Kyoto Dilemma 317(16) R. E. Benedick Introduction: Apples and Oranges? 317(1) Montreal: An Unlikely Success Story 318(1) Lessons From The Ozone Layer 319(1) Climate Change: The Road to Rio 320(1) The Framework Convention on Climate Change 321(1) Tortuous Targets in Kyoto 322(2) When Will the Kyoto Protocol Enter Into Force? 324(1) Unlearned Lessons 325(1) Time To Move on: A longer Term Perspective 326(2) A Technology-based Strategy For The Future: Eight Points For Action 328(5) References 330(3) Optimizing Long-Term Climate Management 333(12) K. Hasselmann Introduction 333(1) Global Environment and Society Models 333(2) Impulse-Response Climate Models 335(4) Optimizing CO2 Emissions 339(3) Conclusions 342(3) References 342(3) Subject Index 345