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1 Population: Survival and Growth |
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1 | (42) |
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1.1 Earth, Life and Humans in Context |
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1 | (11) |
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1.1.1 Recent Arrival of Humans |
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1 | (1) |
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1 | (1) |
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1.1.3 Human Essentials: Water and Oxygen |
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2 | (1) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.1.5 From Single Cell to More Complex Life |
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4 | (1) |
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1.1.6 Great Oxidation, Ozone and Aerobic Life |
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4 | (1) |
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1.1.7 Vertebrates and the First Life Mass Extinction |
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4 | (1) |
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1.1.8 Life on Land and the Second Life Mass Extinction |
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5 | (1) |
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1.1.9 Plant and Animal Reproduction on Land |
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6 | (1) |
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1.1.10 Mammal-Like Animals and the Third Life Mass Extinction |
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7 | (1) |
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1.1.11 Recovery and Fourth Life Mass Extinction |
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7 | (1) |
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1.1.12 Dinosaurs and Other Life Prosper and the Fifth Life Mass Extinction |
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7 | (1) |
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1.1.13 New Life from Mammals to Primates |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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1.1.15 Surviving Modern Humans |
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11 | (1) |
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1.2 World Population Growth and Distribution |
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12 | (8) |
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1.2.1 Growing and Multiplying |
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12 | (2) |
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1.2.2 Regional Distribution |
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14 | (4) |
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1.2.3 Population and Stage of Development |
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18 | (1) |
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1.2.4 Trends of Recent Population Growth |
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18 | (2) |
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1.3 Transitional Factors in Population Growth |
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20 | (8) |
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1.3.1 Engine of Population Growth |
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20 | (2) |
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1.3.2 Survival and Longer Lives |
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22 | (2) |
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24 | (2) |
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1.3.4 Speculative Futures |
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26 | (2) |
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1.4 Survival and Enterprise |
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28 | (3) |
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1.5 Knowledge and Its Transmission |
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31 | (2) |
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1.6 Key Dimensions of Human Development |
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33 | (3) |
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1.7 Population Growth, Activity and Sustainability |
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36 | (1) |
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1.8 Transitional and Evolving Setting |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (5) |
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2 Population: Notions, Theories and Policies |
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43 | (22) |
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43 | (1) |
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2.2 Population Size and Balance |
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43 | (2) |
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2.2.1 Some Basic Concepts |
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43 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Stable and Stationary Populations |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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2.3 Population Regulation |
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45 | (1) |
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2.4 Technology and Population Growth |
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45 | (1) |
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2.5 Malthus' and Other Classical Propositions |
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46 | (3) |
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2.5.1 Malthus and Carrying Capacity |
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46 | (1) |
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2.5.2 J. S. Mill and the Stationary State |
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47 | (1) |
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2.5.3 Marx and Engels and Civilization |
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48 | (1) |
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2.6 Demographic Transition |
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49 | (1) |
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2.6.1 Thompson's A, B and C |
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49 | (1) |
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2.6.2 Kingsley Davis' Explosion and Transition |
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49 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Kingsley Davis' Change and Response |
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50 | (1) |
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2.7 Prophets of Doom and Others |
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50 | (2) |
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2.7.1 Population Growth Views |
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50 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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2.7.3 Zero-Population Growth |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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2.8 Population and Development Economics |
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52 | (2) |
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52 | (1) |
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2.8.2 Human Capital and Technical Progress |
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53 | (1) |
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2.8.3 Human Capital and Fertility |
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53 | (1) |
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2.9 Population Change and Institutions |
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54 | (4) |
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2.9.1 Search for Explanation of Population Change |
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54 | (1) |
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2.9.2 Determinants of Fertility |
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54 | (1) |
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2.9.3 Second Demographic Transition |
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55 | (1) |
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2.9.4 Intergenerational Transfer and Fertility |
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55 | (1) |
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2.9.5 Ageing and Sustainability |
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56 | (2) |
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2.10 Changing Perceptions and Population Policies |
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58 | (4) |
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2.10.1 Policies on Population Growth |
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58 | (1) |
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2.10.2 Policies on Fertility Levels |
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59 | (1) |
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2.10.3 Policies on Internal Migration |
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60 | (1) |
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2.10.4 Government Concerns with Population Ageing |
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61 | (1) |
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2.11 Towards Greater Ecological Understanding |
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62 | (1) |
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2.12 Perceptions and Reactive Population Policies |
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62 | (1) |
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63 | (2) |
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3 Fitness Challenge: Too Many or Too Few |
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65 | (22) |
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3.1 Life, Reproduction and Evolution |
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65 | (2) |
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3.1.1 Reproduction and Fitness |
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65 | (1) |
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3.1.2 Biology: Cells, Genes, Homeostasis and Natural Selection |
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66 | (1) |
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3.1.3 Human Reproduction, Chromosomes and Sex |
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67 | (1) |
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3.2 Fertility: Variation and Themes |
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67 | (7) |
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3.2.1 Fitness-Maximizing and Human Fertility |
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67 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Fertility Determinants |
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68 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Fertility: Social and Economic Factors and Adaptive Behaviour |
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69 | (1) |
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3.2.4 Fitness-Maximizing and Carrying Capacity |
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70 | (1) |
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3.2.5 Cohort Size, Price of Labour and Fertility |
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70 | (1) |
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3.2.6 Backward Intergenerational Goods and Old Age Security |
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71 | (1) |
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3.2.7 Female Labour Force Participation and the Opportunity-Cost of Children |
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71 | (1) |
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3.2.8 Trade-Off Between Quantity and Quality: Human Capital |
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72 | (1) |
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3.2.9 Embodied Human Capital and Trade-Offs |
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72 | (2) |
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3.3 Fertility in Transition |
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74 | (4) |
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3.3.1 Demographic Transition: Fertility and Mortality |
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74 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Early Declines in Fertility |
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75 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Varying Experiences and Stages of the Fertility Transition |
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75 | (3) |
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3.4 Conundrum: Saving the Planet or Reducing the Dependency Burden |
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78 | (5) |
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3.4.1 Population Growth and Falling Fertility |
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78 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Rise and Fall in Fertility and Its Momentum |
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78 | (2) |
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3.4.3 Fertility and the Dependency Burden |
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80 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Shrinking Societies Led by Japan |
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80 | (2) |
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3.4.5 Inequality in Female Education and Access to Contraception |
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82 | (1) |
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3.4.6 Migration Replacement |
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82 | (1) |
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3.5 Transitional Phases and Challenges |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (3) |
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87 | (30) |
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4.1 Necessity, Endowments, Knowledge and Organisation |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (3) |
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88 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Food and Surviving the Population Explosion |
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88 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Survival and Food Security |
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89 | (2) |
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4.4 Survival, Disease and Other Threats |
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91 | (3) |
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4.4.1 Epidemiological Triangle |
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91 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Disease Reservoirs and Hosts |
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91 | (1) |
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92 | (1) |
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4.4.4 Endowments and Modifiers |
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92 | (1) |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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4.4.8 Human Wander and Travel |
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93 | (1) |
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4.4.9 Immunity, Fadeout, Perpetuation and Population Densities |
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94 | (1) |
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4.5 Precarious Early Survival |
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94 | (2) |
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4.5.1 Lack of Current Knowledge |
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94 | (1) |
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4.5.2 Apparent Early Short Lives |
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94 | (1) |
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4.5.3 Microbes, War and Trade |
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95 | (1) |
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4.6 Features of Mortality Decline |
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96 | (1) |
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4.6.1 Improved Nutrition, Quarantine, Inoculation and Sanitation |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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97 | (10) |
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4.7.1 Early Improvements in Survival |
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97 | (1) |
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4.7.2 Limited Early Diffusion of Survival Practices |
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98 | (1) |
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4.7.3 Accelerating Pace of the Mortality Transition |
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99 | (2) |
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4.7.4 Natural Increase and Stages of the Demographic Transition |
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101 | (2) |
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4.7.5 Epidemiological Transition |
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103 | (3) |
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4.7.6 Survival and Healthy Lives |
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106 | (1) |
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4.8 Survival, Health and Socio-economic Determinants |
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107 | (5) |
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4.8.1 Survival and Development |
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107 | (1) |
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4.8.2 Survival and Income |
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108 | (1) |
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4.8.3 Socio-economic Status, Survival and Health |
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109 | (3) |
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4.9 Survival and Longevity: Success and Dilemma |
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112 | (2) |
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114 | (3) |
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5 Migration: Changing Flows and Views |
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117 | (34) |
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5.1 Factors Affecting Migration |
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117 | (3) |
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5.1.1 Out-of-Africa or Regional Origins |
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117 | (1) |
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5.1.2 Push and Pull Factors |
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117 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Surplus Labour and Migration |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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5.2 Social and Economic Effects |
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120 | (3) |
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5.2.1 Forced Migration, Slavery, Transportation, Indenture and Trafficking |
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120 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Migrant Remittances |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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5.2.6 Population Ageing and Migration |
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123 | (1) |
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5.3 Changing Views and Policies on International Migration |
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123 | (2) |
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5.3.1 Government Policies on Immigration |
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123 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Government Policies on Emigration |
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124 | (1) |
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5.4 Taxonomy and Information |
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125 | (2) |
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5.4.1 Definitions and Taxonomy |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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127 | (7) |
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5.5.1 Where Are the Immigrants? |
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127 | (4) |
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5.5.2 Largest Migrant Hosts |
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131 | (3) |
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5.5.3 Characteristics of Migrant Stocks and Flows |
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134 | (1) |
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5.6 Age and Sex of Migrants |
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134 | (2) |
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136 | (5) |
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5.7.1 Population of Working Age and Migrants |
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136 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Sex of Population of Working Age and Migrant Workers |
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137 | (1) |
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5.7.3 Migrant Workers and Labour Force Participation |
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138 | (1) |
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5.7.4 Economic Activity and Migrant Workers |
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138 | (1) |
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5.7.5 Migrant Workers and Income of Host Countries |
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139 | (1) |
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5.7.6 Labour Force Participation of Migrant Workers in Host Countries |
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140 | (1) |
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5.7.7 Regional Distribution of Migrant Workers |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (3) |
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144 | (3) |
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5.10 Internal Migration and Urbanization |
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147 | (1) |
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147 | (2) |
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149 | (2) |
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6 Urbanization: A Way of Living |
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151 | (30) |
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6.1 Population Growth and Concentration |
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151 | (1) |
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6.2 Cities and Urban Settlement |
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151 | (2) |
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6.3 Perspectives on Urbanization |
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153 | (6) |
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6.4 Urban Population Growth |
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159 | (5) |
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6.4.1 Degree and Pace of Urbanization |
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159 | (2) |
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161 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Growth of Megacities |
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161 | (3) |
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6.5 Urbanization: Economic Organisation and Income |
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164 | (6) |
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6.5.1 Mode of Production: Agriculture, Industry and Services |
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164 | (2) |
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6.5.2 Urbanization: Economic Organization, Productivity and Income |
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166 | (1) |
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6.5.3 Urbanization, Industrialisation and Income Inequality |
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167 | (3) |
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170 | (2) |
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6.7 Urbanization: Banlieue and Slums |
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172 | (3) |
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6.8 Urbanization and the Environment |
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175 | (2) |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (3) |
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181 | (40) |
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181 | (2) |
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7.1.1 Stable and Unstable Age Populations |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (2) |
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7.2 Transformation and Ageing |
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183 | (1) |
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7.3 Transformation Path and Clustering |
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184 | (3) |
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7.3.1 Transformation Phases and Ageing |
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184 | (1) |
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7.3.2 High Fertility and High Mortality: Child Populations |
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184 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Lowering Fertility and Mortality: Child and Young Adult Populations |
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185 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Converging Fertility and Mortality: Young Adult Populations |
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185 | (1) |
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7.3.5 Low Fertility and Low Mortality: Replacement of Young Through Immigration |
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186 | (1) |
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7.3.6 Low Fertility and Mortality: Older Populations |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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7.5 Ageing: Socio-economic Dynamics |
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188 | (1) |
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7.6 Physical and Socio-economic Activity |
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189 | (9) |
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7.6.1 Ageing: Physical and Social Activity |
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189 | (2) |
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7.6.2 Ageing and Labour Force Participation |
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191 | (1) |
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7.6.3 Ageing and Income Generation |
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192 | (1) |
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7.6.4 Labour Force Bonuses and Deficits |
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193 | (4) |
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7.6.5 Dependency Transition |
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197 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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7.7 Ageing and Intergenerational Dependency |
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198 | (5) |
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198 | (1) |
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7.7.2 Ageing and Demand for Health Care and Social Services |
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199 | (1) |
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7.7.3 Ageing and Income Support |
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200 | (2) |
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7.7.4 Intergenerational Transfers: Productivity and Distributional Issues |
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202 | (1) |
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7.8 Ageing, Wellbeing and Other Outcomes |
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203 | (11) |
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7.8.1 Changing Living Arrangements |
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203 | (1) |
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7.8.2 Old-Age Living Arrangements and Development |
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203 | (2) |
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7.8.3 Old-Age Living Arrangements of Males and Females |
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205 | (1) |
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7.8.4 Some Intraregional and Within Country Differences |
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206 | (2) |
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7.8.5 Disability and Institutionalisation |
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208 | (1) |
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7.8.6 Formal Care and Female Informal Care |
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209 | (1) |
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7.8.7 Ageing and Long-Term Care Fiscal Implications |
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209 | (1) |
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7.8.8 Ageing and Changing Consumer Priorities |
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209 | (1) |
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7.8.9 Wellbeing and Life Satisfaction |
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210 | (4) |
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214 | (3) |
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217 | (4) |
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8 Gender Dilemma: Difference and Equality |
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221 | (22) |
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221 | (1) |
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8.2 Gender Identity and Behaviour |
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222 | (3) |
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8.2.1 Sex Differences and Gender Stereotypes |
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222 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Sex Typing, Gender Identity and Behaviour |
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223 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Stereotype Threat, Group Bias and Context |
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224 | (1) |
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8.2.4 Gender Similarity Hypothesis |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (2) |
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8.4 Difference and Equality |
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227 | (13) |
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8.4.1 Dimensions and Context |
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227 | (2) |
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229 | (3) |
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232 | (4) |
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8.4.4 Economic Opportunities |
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236 | (4) |
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8.5 Gendered Inequalities in Transition |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (2) |
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9 Deviance: Social Change and Control |
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243 | (34) |
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9.1 Deviant and Criminal Behaviour |
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243 | (1) |
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9.2 Social Ideals, Means and Anomie |
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244 | (1) |
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9.3 Psychosocial Development |
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245 | (2) |
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245 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Social Cognitive Development and Biological Determinism |
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246 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Social Learning and Modelling |
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246 | (1) |
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9.4 Social Control and Differentiation |
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247 | (3) |
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9.4.1 Social Differentiation |
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247 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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9.4.3 Neutralization of Social Control |
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248 | (1) |
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9.4.4 Social Bonding and Control |
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249 | (1) |
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9.5 Crime and Punishment and Economics |
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250 | (1) |
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9.6 Deviance: Rebellion and Social Change |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (19) |
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9.7.1 Types of Criminal Offenses |
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253 | (6) |
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9.7.2 Criminal Behaviour: Sex and Age |
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259 | (6) |
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265 | (3) |
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9.7.4 Crime and Imprisonment |
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268 | (3) |
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271 | (1) |
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9.8 Deviance: Social Change and Control |
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272 | (1) |
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273 | (4) |
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10 Population and Socio-economic Prospects |
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277 | (40) |
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10.1 Socio-economic Organization in Transition |
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277 | (2) |
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10.2 Capital, Technical Change and Human Capital |
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279 | (2) |
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10.3 Health and Human Capital |
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281 | (3) |
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10.3.1 Health and Cognitive Capacity |
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281 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Childhood Health and Educational Achievement |
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281 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Health and Human Capital Productivity |
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282 | (1) |
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10.3.4 Life Expectancy and Healthy Life |
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283 | (1) |
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10.4 Education and Human Capital |
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284 | (5) |
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10.4.1 Education: Investment and Returns |
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284 | (4) |
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10.4.2 Education and Employment |
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288 | (1) |
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10.5 Labour Force and Employment |
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289 | (13) |
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10.5.1 Population and the Labour Force |
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289 | (3) |
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10.5.2 Labour Force Participation |
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292 | (4) |
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10.5.3 Shifting Employment Sector |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (2) |
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10.5.5 Labour Productivity, Sharing of Earnings and Inequality |
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299 | (3) |
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10.6 Productivity, Inequality and Poverty |
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302 | (6) |
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10.6.1 Growing Global Productivity |
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302 | (1) |
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10.6.2 Life Cycle Ups and Downs |
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303 | (1) |
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10.6.3 Global Income Inequality |
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303 | (1) |
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10.6.4 Income Distribution and Inequality |
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304 | (3) |
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10.6.5 Inequality and Poverty |
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307 | (1) |
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10.6.6 Declining Extreme Poverty |
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307 | (1) |
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10.7 Productivity: Priorities and Choices |
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308 | (5) |
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10.7.1 Bare Necessities' Priority |
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|
308 | (1) |
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10.7.2 Life Cycle Changes and Preferences |
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|
309 | (2) |
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10.7.3 Relative Affluence and Choices |
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|
311 | (2) |
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10.8 Evolving and Transitional Socio-economic Development |
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|
313 | (1) |
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314 | (3) |
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11 Population and the Environment |
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|
317 | (28) |
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11.1 Widening Perspectives |
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317 | (5) |
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11.2 Environmental Conundrum: Population and Economic Growth |
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322 | (4) |
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11.3 Environment Domains and Human Activity |
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326 | (1) |
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11.4 Population, Land and the Environment |
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327 | (9) |
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11.4.1 Land Use: Agriculture and Forests |
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327 | (4) |
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331 | (1) |
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11.4.3 Population Growth, Industrial and Service Production |
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332 | (3) |
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11.4.4 Population Growth and Urbanization |
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335 | (1) |
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11.4.5 Population Growth and Biodiversity |
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335 | (1) |
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11.5 Population, Water and the Environment |
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336 | (4) |
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11.5.1 Sources and Distribution of Water in the World |
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336 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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11.5.3 Population Growth, Mangroves and Estuaries |
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338 | (1) |
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11.5.4 Population Growth and Fishing |
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338 | (1) |
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11.5.5 Human Activity and Warming of the Oceans |
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339 | (1) |
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11.6 Population, Air and the Environment |
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340 | (1) |
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11.7 Some Technology, Institutional, Market and Policy Issues |
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341 | (2) |
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11.7.1 Public and Private Interests |
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341 | (1) |
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11.7.2 Market Prices, Resources and Technology |
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342 | (1) |
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11.7.3 Institutional and Cultural Features |
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|
342 | (1) |
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343 | (2) |
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12 The Future and Its Challenges |
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|
345 | |
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12.1 Inevitable Future Population Growth |
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345 | (6) |
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12.1.1 Alternatives and Pathways of Population Change |
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345 | (1) |
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12.1.2 Feeding the Growing Population |
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346 | (2) |
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12.1.3 Settlement of the Growing Population |
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348 | (1) |
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12.1.4 Energy for a Growing Population |
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349 | (1) |
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12.1.5 Commons: Private and Public Interests |
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350 | (1) |
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12.2 Evolving Roles, Inequalities, Lags and Gaps |
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351 | (4) |
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12.2.1 Evolving Roles and Activity |
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351 | (1) |
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352 | (3) |
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12.3 Asymmetries and Sharing of Productivity Gains |
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355 | (1) |
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12.3.1 Asymmetry in Age Distribution |
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355 | (1) |
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12.3.2 Intergenerational Transfers |
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355 | (1) |
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12.3.3 Asymmetry in Sharing of Productivity Gains |
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356 | (1) |
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12.3.4 Asymmetry Between Socioeconomic and Political Development |
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356 | (1) |
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12.4 Experiences and Challenges |
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|
356 | (1) |
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|
357 | |