Preface |
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xi | |
Acronyms, Constants, and Symbols |
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xv | |
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1 | (28) |
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1.1 Atomic Optical Emission Spectrochemistry (OES) |
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1 | (1) |
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1 | (1) |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) |
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2 | (5) |
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1.3 LIBS History 1960-1980 |
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7 | (2) |
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1.4 LIBS History 1981-1990 |
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9 | (2) |
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1.5 LIBS History 1991-2000 |
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11 | (3) |
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1.6 LIBS History 2001-2012 |
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14 | (15) |
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18 | (11) |
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2 Basics of the LIBS Plasma |
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29 | (40) |
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2.1 LIBS Plasma Fundamentals |
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29 | (17) |
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2.1.1 Spectral Lines and Line Profiles |
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32 | (2) |
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2.1.2 Determining Electron Densities from Spectral Line Widths |
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34 | (3) |
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37 | (1) |
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2.1.4 Temperature and Thermodynamic Equilibrium |
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38 | (8) |
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2.2 Laser-Induced Breakdown |
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46 | (7) |
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46 | (2) |
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2.2.2 Post-Breakdown Phenomena in Gases |
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48 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Breakdown in and on Solids, Aerosols, and Liquids |
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48 | (2) |
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2.2.4 Post-Breakdown Phenomena on Solid Surfaces |
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50 | (3) |
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2.3 Laser Ablation from Surfaces and Aerosols |
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53 | (5) |
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2.4 Nanosecond and Femtosecond Double- or Multiple-Pulse LIBS |
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58 | (5) |
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63 | (1) |
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63 | (6) |
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64 | (5) |
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3 LIBS Apparatus Fundamentals |
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69 | (54) |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (10) |
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70 | (2) |
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72 | (4) |
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3.2.3 Properties of Laser Light Important for LIBS |
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76 | (2) |
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3.2.4 Generation of Additional Wavelengths |
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78 | (1) |
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3.2.5 Double-Pulse Operation |
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78 | (2) |
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80 | (6) |
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3.3.1 Focusing and Light Collection |
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80 | (2) |
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82 | (1) |
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82 | (4) |
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3.4 Methods of Spectral Resolution |
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86 | (16) |
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86 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Spectral Resolution Devices |
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88 | (14) |
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102 | (7) |
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3.6 Detection System Calibrations |
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109 | (5) |
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3.6.1 Wavelength Calibration |
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109 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Spectral Response Calibration |
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110 | (4) |
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3.7 Timing Considerations |
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114 | (1) |
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3.8 Methods of LIBS Deployment |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (6) |
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118 | (5) |
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4 LIBS Analytical Figures of Merit and Calibration |
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123 | (28) |
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123 | (1) |
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4.2 Basics of a LIBS Measurement |
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123 | (6) |
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129 | (2) |
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131 | (13) |
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131 | (7) |
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4.4.2 Calibration Standards |
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138 | (2) |
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4.4.3 Calibration-Free LIBS |
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140 | (4) |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (2) |
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146 | (5) |
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148 | (2) |
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References for Detection Limits |
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150 | (1) |
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5 Qualitative LIBS Analysis |
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151 | (34) |
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151 | (1) |
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151 | (5) |
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5.3 Material Identification |
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156 | (3) |
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159 | (10) |
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159 | (3) |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (6) |
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169 | (1) |
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5.5 Material Sorting/Distinguishing |
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169 | (8) |
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169 | (2) |
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171 | (2) |
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5.5.3 Sorting Materials of Close Composition |
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173 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Other Examples of Material Identification |
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174 | (3) |
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5.6 Site Screening Using LIBS |
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177 | (1) |
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5.7 Semiquantitative Analysis |
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178 | (2) |
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180 | (5) |
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182 | (3) |
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6 Quantitative LIBS Analysis |
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185 | (38) |
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185 | (1) |
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6.2 Effects of Sampling Geometry |
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185 | (4) |
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6.3 Other Sampling Considerations |
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189 | (4) |
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6.4 Incomplete Vaporization and Ablation Stoichiometry |
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193 | (1) |
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6.5 Use of Internal Standardization |
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194 | (2) |
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6.6 Chemical Matrix Effects |
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196 | (2) |
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6.7 Example of LIBS Measurement: Impurities in Lithium-Containing Solutions |
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198 | (8) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (3) |
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201 | (4) |
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6.7.4 Discussion of Results |
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205 | (1) |
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6.8 Example of LIBS Measurement: Detection of Materials on Swipes |
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206 | (5) |
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206 | (1) |
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206 | (3) |
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209 | (2) |
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6.9 Reported Figures of Merit for LIBS Measurements and Comparison with Standard Methods |
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211 | (8) |
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6.10 Enhancing Quantitative Analysis via Sophisticated Signal Processing |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (3) |
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221 | (2) |
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7 Chemometric Analysis in LIBS |
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223 | (34) |
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223 | (4) |
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227 | (5) |
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7.3 Chemometric Analysis/Model Development |
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232 | (9) |
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232 | (2) |
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7.3.2 Data Preprocessing: Selection of Variables |
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234 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Train the Model (Calibration) |
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236 | (2) |
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7.3.4 Selecting the Criteria for Classification |
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238 | (1) |
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7.3.5 Test the Model (Validation) |
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239 | (1) |
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7.3.6 Refine the Model Parameters |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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7.3.8 Improve the Training Data |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (16) |
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241 | (16) |
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8 Remote LIBS Measurements |
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257 | (32) |
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257 | (2) |
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8.2 Conventional Open-Path LIBS |
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259 | (11) |
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259 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Focusing the Laser Pulse |
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260 | (4) |
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8.2.3 Collecting the Plasma Light |
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264 | (1) |
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8.2.4 Results Using Conventional Open-Path LIBS |
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265 | (5) |
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8.3 Standoff LIBS Using Femtosecond Pulses |
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270 | (6) |
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8.3.1 Conventional Remote LIBS Using Femtosecond Laser Pulses |
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270 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Remote Analysis by Filamentation Produced by Femtosecond Pulses |
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271 | (5) |
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276 | (13) |
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8.4.1 Fiber Optics for Light Collection |
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276 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Fibers for Laser Pulse Delivery |
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277 | (3) |
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8.4.3 Applications of Fiber Optics |
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280 | (4) |
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284 | (5) |
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9 Selected LIBS Applications |
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289 | (44) |
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289 | (1) |
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9.2 LIBS and the CBRNE Threats |
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289 | (8) |
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289 | (2) |
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9.2.2 Nuclear Material and Isotope Detection |
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291 | (3) |
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9.2.3 Detection of Explosives |
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294 | (1) |
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9.2.4 Chemical and Biological Agent Detection |
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295 | (2) |
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9.3 LIBS Analysis of Liquids and Solids in Liquids |
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297 | (6) |
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9.4 Transportable LIBS Instrument for Stand-off Analysis |
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303 | (10) |
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303 | (4) |
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9.4.2 Instrument Capabilities |
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307 | (5) |
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9.4.3 Consideration of Detection Scenarios |
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312 | (1) |
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9.5 LIBS for Space Applications |
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313 | (20) |
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313 | (1) |
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9.5.2 Laboratory Studies of LIBS for Space Missions |
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313 | (9) |
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9.5.3 ChemCam LIBS Instrument on MSL Rover |
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322 | (3) |
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325 | (8) |
A Safety Considerations in LIBS |
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333 | (4) |
B Major LIBS References |
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337 | (4) |
C Detection Limits from the Literature |
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341 | (36) |
D Examples of LIBS Spectra |
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377 | (10) |
E Solutions to Problems |
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387 | (10) |
Index |
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397 | |