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El. knyga: International Law and Weapons Review: Emerging Military Technology under the Law of Armed Conflict

(University of New South Wales, Sydney)
  • Formatas: EPUB+DRM
  • Išleidimo metai: 16-Dec-2021
  • Leidėjas: Cambridge University Press
  • Kalba: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781108943727
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International Law and Weapons Review: Emerging Military Technology under the Law of Armed ConflictDidesnis paveikslėlis
  • Formatas: EPUB+DRM
  • Išleidimo metai: 16-Dec-2021
  • Leidėjas: Cambridge University Press
  • Kalba: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781108943727
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International law requires that, before any new weapon is developed, purchased or modified, the legality of its use must be determined. This book offers the first comprehensive and systemic analysis of the law mandating such assessments – Article 36 of the 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions. Underpinned by empirical research, the book explores the challenges the weapons review authorities are facing when examining emerging military technology, such as autonomous weapons systems and (autonomous) cyber capabilities. It argues that Article 36 is sufficiently broad to cover a wide range of military systems and offers States the necessary flexibility to adopt a process that best suits their organisational demands. While sending a clear signal that law should not simply follow technological developments, but rather steer them, the provision has its limits, however, which are shaped and defined by the interpretative decisions made by States.

International law requires that, before any new weapon is developed, purchased or modified, the legality of its use must be determined. This book offers the first comprehensive and systemic analysis of the law mandating such reviews and explores the challenges that emerging military technology poses to reviewing authorities.

Daugiau informacijos

The first comprehensive and systemic analysis of States' weapons review obligation under international law underpinned by empirical research.
Foreword xiii
William Henry Boothby
Acknowledgements xvi
Table of Cases
xviii
Table of Treaties and Other Selected Instruments
xx
List of Abbreviations
xxxi
1 Introduction
1(17)
1.1 Emerging Military Technologies and Weapons Reviews
1(5)
1.2 Cyber Capabilities, Autonomous Weapon Systems, Autonomy and Artificial Intelligence
6(3)
1.3 Purpose and Scope
9(2)
1.4 Methodology
11(7)
2 Article 36: Background and Historical Development
18(32)
2.1 Compliance with Weapons Law: Clarifying Terminology
19(4)
2.2 Implementation Regulations in Pre-1977 Weapons Law Treaties
23(14)
2.2.1 1868 St Petersburg Declaration
23(2)
2.2.2 1874 Brussels Declaration and 1880 Oxford Manual
25(1)
2.2.3 1899 and 1907 Hague Conferences
26(2)
2.2.4 1922 Washington Treaty and 1925 Geneva Gas Protocol
28(3)
2.2.5 1972 Biological Weapons Convention
31(1)
2.2.6 1976 ENMOD Convention
32(1)
2.2.7 Evaluation
33(4)
2.3 Drafting History of Article 36
37(13)
2.3.1 Developments after the 1949 Diplomatic Conference
38(2)
2.3.2 1972 Conference of Government Experts
40(2)
2.3.3 1973 ICRC Draft and Commentary
42(2)
2.3.4 1974-77 Diplomatic Conference
44(1)
2.3.4.1 Organisation of the Conference
44(1)
2.3.4.2 Changes to the Wording of Article 36 at the Conference
45(3)
2.3.5 The Legacy of Four Years, Four Days and Nine Pages
48(2)
3 Interpretative Methodology
50(37)
3.1 Defining Interpretation
52(3)
3.2 Importance of Clear and Transparent Methodology for LOAC
55(5)
3.3 Relevant Interpretative Community
60(6)
3.3.1 States
61(1)
3.3.2 Judiciary
62(1)
3.3.3 ICRC
63(1)
3.3.4 NGOs
64(1)
3.3.5 Subject Matter Experts
65(1)
3.4 Interpretative Rules for LOAC
66(21)
3.4.1 The General Rule of Article 31 and the Subsidiary Means of Interpretation under Article 32
66(2)
3.4.2 Limitations Inherent in the General Rule
68(1)
3.4.2.1 `Ordinary Meaning'
68(1)
3.4.2.2 `Context'
68(2)
3.4.2.3 `Object and Purpose'
70(2)
3.4.2.4 `Subsequent Practice in the Application of the Treaty': Article 31(3)(b)
72(1)
3.4.2.5 `Any Relevant Rules of International Law Applicable in the Relations between the Parties': Article 31(3)(c)
73(2)
3.4.2.6 `Special Meaning': Article 31(4)
75(1)
3.4.3 Limited Informative Scope of Subsidiary Means of Interpretation
75(2)
3.4.4 Requirement of Practical Interpretation
77(2)
3.4.5 Requirement of Evolutive Interpretation
79(3)
3.4.6 Requirement of Coherence
82(3)
3.4.7 Interpreting Article 36
85(2)
4 Interpreting Article 36: The Object of Review
87(35)
4.1 `A ... Weapon, Means or Method of Warfare'
88(27)
4.1.1 Interpretation on the Basis of the General Rule
91(4)
4.1.2 States' Approaches
95(1)
4.1.2.1 `Intuitive Approach'
95(1)
4.1.2.2 `Extensive Definitional Approach'
96(2)
4.1.2.3 "Weapons" as a Subcategory of "Means" - Approach'
98(2)
4.1.2.4 Common Features
100(1)
4.1.2.5 Methods of Warfare
100(1)
4.1.3 Further interpretative Suggestions
101(3)
4.1.4 Drafting Materials
104(3)
4.1.5 Proposed Interpretation
107(1)
4.1.5.1 `Weapons' and `Means of Warfare'
107(4)
4.1.5.2 `Methods of Warfare'
111(1)
4.1.6 Nuclear Weapons
112(3)
4.2 `New'
115(7)
4.2.1 Interpretation on the Basis of the General Rule
115(1)
4.2.2 States' Approaches
115(2)
4.2.3 Further Interpretative Suggestions
117(1)
4.2.4 Drafting Materials
118(1)
4.2.5 Proposed Interpretation
119(3)
5 Interpretation of Article 36: The Process and Standard of Review
122(41)
5.1 `A High Contracting Party'
124(2)
5.2 `Study, Development, Acquisition or Adoption'
126(9)
5.2.1 Interpretation on the Basis of the General Rule
126(1)
5.2.2 States' Approaches
127(1)
5.2.3 Further Interpretative Suggestions
128(2)
5.2.4 Drafting Materials
130(1)
5.2.5 Proposed Interpretation
131(4)
5.3 `Determine'
135(9)
5.3.1 Interpretation on the Basis of the General Rule
135(1)
5.3.2 States' Approaches
135(4)
5.3.3 Further Interpretative Suggestions
139(1)
5.3.4 Drafting Materials
140(1)
5.3.5 Proposed Interpretation
141(3)
5.4 `Its Employment in Some, or All Circumstances'
144(4)
5.5 `This Protocol or Any Other Rule of International Law'
148(14)
5.5.1 Interpretation on the Basis of the General Rule
148(1)
5.5.2 Methodology Applied in Weapons Reviews
149(4)
5.5.3 Applicability of IHRL in the Context of Article 36
153(4)
5.5.3.1 The Right to Life
157(1)
5.5.3.2 The Right to Freedom from Torture and Other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
158(1)
5.5.3.3 The Right to Health
159(2)
5.5.4 Proposed Interpretation
161(1)
5.6 Legal Review of Weapons Employed in NIAC
162(1)
6 Weapons Review Obligation under Customary International Law
163(32)
6.1 Customary International Law
166(15)
6.1.1 Contentious Concept of CIL
168(3)
6.1.2 Constituent Elements of CIL
171(1)
6.1.2.1 State Practice
171(4)
6.1.2.2 Nature of Practice
175(3)
6.1.2.3 Opinio Juris
178(3)
6.2 Article 36 as Part of CIL
181(7)
6.2.1 Relationship between Treaty and Custom
181(2)
6.2.2 Has Article 36 Given Rise to a General Practice Accepted as Law?
183(1)
6.2.2.1 State Practice
183(1)
6.2.2.2 Opinio Juris
184(4)
6.3 `Alternative' Weapons Review Obligation under CIL
188(7)
6.3.1 Harvard Manual
188(1)
6.3.2 Tallinn Manual 2.0
189(1)
6.3.3 Evaluation
190(5)
7 Weapons Reviews under the System of AP I: Relationship between Article 36 and Article 82
195(12)
7.1 Article 82 of AP I: General Overview
195(4)
7.2 Article 82's Complementary Function
199(3)
7.3 Do the Scopes of Articles 36 and 82 Overlap?
202(5)
8 Challenges to Article 36 Reviews Posed by Autonomous Weapons Systems (AWS)
207(32)
8.1 Discussions within the Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) on Emerging Technologies in the Area of Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS)
208(3)
8.2 Autonomy and AI: Systems Falling under the Review Obligation
211(7)
8.3 Review Methodology: Weapons Law and the Law of Targeting
218(14)
8.4 When to Review? `Novelty' of AWS
232(1)
8.5 How (Much) and How to Test?
233(4)
8.6 Relevant Expertise and Compliance
237(2)
9 Challenges to Article 36 Reviews Posed by (Autonomous) Cyber Capabilities
239(32)
9.1 Discussions within the Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) and the Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) on the Legal Framework Applicable in Cyberspace
241(9)
9.2 What Capabilities Fall under the Review Requirement?
250(11)
9.2.1 Cyber Attacks
251(5)
9.2.2 Extent of the Review
256(5)
9.3 Review Methodology: Weapons Law and the Law of Targeting
261(6)
9.4 When to Review? `Newness' of Cyber Capabilities
267(1)
9.5 How (Much) and How to Test?
268(1)
9.6 Relevant Expertise and Compliance
269(2)
10 Concluding Remarks
271(5)
Index 276
Natalia Jevglevskaja is a Research Fellow at University of New South Wales, Sydney. Previously, she was a Lecturer and a Research Fellow at UNSW Canberra at the Australian Defence Force Academy where she focused on the application of international law to State operations in the cyber domain, and the law, ethics and value sensitive design of emerging military and security technology. She holds a PhD from the University of Melbourne.
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