| Preface |
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1 | (186) |
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Chapter 1 Cell Mechanics as a Framework |
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3 | (16) |
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1.1 Cell mechanics and human disease |
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4 | (4) |
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Specialized cells in the ear allow you to hear |
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5 | (1) |
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Hemodynamic forces regulate endothelial cells |
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6 | (1) |
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To keep bone healthy, bone cells need mechanical stimulation |
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6 | (1) |
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The cells that line your lungs sense stretch |
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7 | (1) |
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Pathogens can alter cell mechanical properties |
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7 | (1) |
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Other pathogens can use cell mechanical structures to their advantage |
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7 | (1) |
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Cancer cells need to crawl to be metastatic |
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8 | (1) |
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Viruses transfer their cargo into cells they infect |
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8 | (1) |
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1.2 The cell is an applied mechanics grand challenge |
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8 | (1) |
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Computer simulation of cell mechanics requires state-of-the-art approaches |
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9 | (1) |
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1.3 Model problem: micropipette aspiration |
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9 | (10) |
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What is a typical experimental setup for micropipette aspiration? |
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9 | (2) |
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The liquid-drop model is a simple model that can explain some aspiration results |
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11 | (1) |
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The Law of Laplace can be applied to a spherical cell |
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12 | (1) |
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Micropipette aspiration experiments can be analyzed with the Law of Laplace |
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12 | (1) |
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How do we measure surface tension and areal expansion modulus? |
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13 | (2) |
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15 | (1) |
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Cells can behave as elastic solids or liquid drops |
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16 | (1) |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Fundamentals in Cell Biology |
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19 | (34) |
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2.1 Fundamentals in cell and molecular biology |
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19 | (11) |
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Proteins are polymers of amino acids |
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20 | (2) |
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DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleic acids |
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22 | (2) |
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Polysaccharides are polymers of sugars |
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24 | (1) |
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Fatty acids store energy but also form structures |
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24 | (1) |
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Correspondence between DNA-to-RNA-to-protein is the central dogma of modern cell biology |
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25 | (2) |
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Phenotype is the manifestation of genotype |
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27 | (1) |
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Transcriptional regulation is one way that phenotype differs from genotype |
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28 | (1) |
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Cell organelles perform a variety of functions |
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29 | (1) |
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2.2 Receptors are cells' primary chemical sensors |
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30 | (6) |
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Cells communicate by biochemical signals |
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30 | (1) |
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Signaling between cells can occur through many different mechanisms |
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31 | (1) |
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Intracellular signaling occurs via small molecules known as second messengers |
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32 | (2) |
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Large molecule signaling cascades have the potential for more specificity |
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34 | (1) |
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Receptors use several mechanisms to initiate signaling |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (10) |
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Optical techniques can display cells clearly |
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37 | (1) |
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Fluorescence visualizes cells with lower background |
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38 | (1) |
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Fluorophores can highlight structures |
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39 | (1) |
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Fluorophores can probe function |
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40 | (1) |
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Atomic force microscopy can elucidate the mechanical behavior of cells |
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40 | (1) |
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Gel electrophoresis can separate molecules |
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41 | (1) |
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Visualizing gel-separated products employs a variety of methods |
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42 | (1) |
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PCR amplifies specific DNA regions exponentially |
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43 | (3) |
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2.4 Experimental design in biology |
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46 | (7) |
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Reductionist experiments are powerful but limited |
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46 | (2) |
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Modern genetics has advanced our ability to study in situ |
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48 | (1) |
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Bioinformatics allows us to use vast amounts of genomic data |
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49 | (1) |
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Systems biology is integration rather than reduction |
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49 | (1) |
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Biomechanics and mechanobiology are integrative |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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50 | (2) |
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52 | (1) |
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Chapter 3 Solid Mechanics Primer |
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53 | (36) |
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3.1 Rigid-body mechanics and free-body diagrams |
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53 | (2) |
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53 | (1) |
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One of the most powerful, but underused, tools is a free-body diagram |
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53 | (1) |
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Identifying the forces is the first step in drawing a free-body diagram |
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54 | (1) |
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Influences are identified by applying the equations of motion |
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54 | (1) |
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Free-body diagrams can be drawn for parts of objects |
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55 | (1) |
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3.2 Mechanics of deformable bodies |
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55 | (23) |
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Rigid-body mechanics is not very useful for analyzing deformable bodies |
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55 | (1) |
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Mechanical stress is analogous to pressure |
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56 | (1) |
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Normal stress is perpendicular to the area of interest |
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56 | (1) |
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Strain represents the normalized change in length of an object to load |
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57 | (1) |
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The stress-strain plot for a material reveals information about its stiffness |
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57 | (1) |
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Stress and pressure are not the same thing, because stress has directionality |
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58 | (1) |
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Shear stress describes stress when forces and areas are perpendicular to each other |
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59 | (1) |
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Shear strain measures deformation resulting from shear stress |
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59 | (1) |
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Torsion in the thin-walled cylinder can be modeled with shear stress relations |
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60 | (1) |
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Torsion of a solid cylinder can be modeled as a torsion of a series of shells of increasing radius |
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61 | (1) |
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Kinematics, equilibrium, and constitutive equations are the foundation of solid mechanics |
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62 | (1) |
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Kinematics in a beam are the strain-displacement relationship |
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62 | (2) |
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Equilibrium in a beam is the stress-moment relationship |
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64 | (1) |
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The constitutive equation is the stress-strain relationship |
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65 | (1) |
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The second moment of inertia is a measure of bending resistance |
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65 | (1) |
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The cantilevered beam can be solved from the general beam equations |
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66 | (1) |
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Buckling loads can be determined from the beam equations |
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67 | (1) |
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Transverse strains occur with axial loading |
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68 | (1) |
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The general continuum equations can be developed from our simple examples |
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68 | (1) |
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Equilibrium implies conditions on stress |
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69 | (2) |
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Kinematics relate strain to displacement |
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71 | (2) |
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The constitutive equation or stress-strain relation characterizes the material behavior |
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73 | (1) |
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Vector notation is a compact way to express equations in continuum mechanics |
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74 | (2) |
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Stress and strain can be expressed as matrices |
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76 | (1) |
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In the principal directions shear stress is zero |
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76 | (2) |
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3.3 Large deformation mechanics |
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78 | (5) |
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The deformation gradient tensor describes large deformations |
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78 | (1) |
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Stretch is another geometrical measure of deformation |
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79 | (1) |
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Large deformation strain can be defined in terms of the deformation gradient |
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80 | (2) |
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The deformation gradient can be decomposed into rotation and stretch components |
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82 | (1) |
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3.4 Structural elements are defined by their shape and loading mode |
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83 | (6) |
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84 | (1) |
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84 | (3) |
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87 | (2) |
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Chapter 4 Fluid Mechanics Primer |
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89 | (30) |
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89 | (3) |
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Hydrostatic pressure results from gravitational forces |
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89 | (2) |
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Hydrostatic pressure is isotropic |
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91 | (1) |
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Resultant forces arising from hydrostatic pressure can be calculated through integration |
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92 | (1) |
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92 | (6) |
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Fluids obey mass conservation |
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93 | (1) |
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Fluid flows can be laminar or turbulent |
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94 | (1) |
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Many laminar flows can be solved analytically |
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95 | (2) |
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Many biological fluids can exhibit non-Newtonian behavior |
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97 | (1) |
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4.3 The Navier-Stokes equations |
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98 | (5) |
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Derivation of the Navier-Stokes equations begins with Newton's second law |
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99 | (3) |
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Constitutive relations and the continuity equation are necessary to make Navier's equations solvable |
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102 | (1) |
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Navier-Stokes equations: putting it all together |
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103 | (1) |
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103 | (7) |
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The mechanical behavior of viscoelastic materials can be decomposed into elastic and viscous components |
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104 | (2) |
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Complex moduli can be defined for viscoelastic materials |
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106 | (2) |
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Power laws can be used to model frequency-dependent changes in storage and loss moduli |
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108 | (2) |
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110 | (9) |
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Dimensional analysis requires the determination of base parameters |
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110 | (1) |
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The Buckingham Pi Theorem gives the number of dimensionless parameters that can be formed from base parameters |
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111 | (1) |
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Dimensionless parameters can be found through solving a system of equations |
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111 | (2) |
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Similitude is a practical use of dimensional analysis |
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113 | (1) |
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Dimensional parameters can be used to check analytical expressions |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (2) |
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Chapter 5 Statistical Mechanics Primer |
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119 | (32) |
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Statistical mechanics relies on the use of probabilistic distributions |
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119 | (1) |
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Statistical mechanics can be used to investigate the influence of random molecular forces on mechanical behavior |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (4) |
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Potential energy can be used to make predictions of mechanical behavior |
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120 | (2) |
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Strain energy is potential energy stored in elastic deformations |
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122 | (1) |
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Equilibrium in continuum mechanics is a problem of strain energy minimization |
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123 | (1) |
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Changes in mechanical state alter internal energy |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (4) |
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Entropy is directly defined within statistical mechanics |
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124 | (1) |
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Microstates, macrostates, and density of states can be exemplified in a three-coin system |
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124 | (3) |
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Microstates, macrostates, and density of states provide insight to macroscopic system behavior |
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127 | (1) |
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Ensembles are collections of microstates sharing a common property |
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127 | (1) |
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Entropy is related to the number of microstates associated with a given macrostate |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (3) |
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Equilibrium behavior for thermodynamic systems can be obtained via free energy minimization |
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128 | (1) |
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Temperature-dependence of end-to-end length in polymers arises out of competition between energy and entropy |
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129 | (2) |
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5.4 Microcanonical ensemble |
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131 | (5) |
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The hairpinned polymer as a non-interacting two-level system |
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132 | (1) |
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A microcanonical ensemble can be used to determine constant energy microstates |
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132 | (1) |
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Entropy can be calculated via combinatorial enumeration of the density of states |
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133 | (1) |
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Entropy is maximal when half the sites contain hairpins |
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133 | (1) |
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S(W) can be used to predict equilibrium behavior |
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133 | (1) |
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The number of hairpins at equilibrium is dependent on temperature |
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134 | (1) |
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Equilibrium obtained via the microcanonical ensemble is identical to that obtained via free energy minimization |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (7) |
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Canonical ensemble starting from the microcanonical ensemble |
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136 | (2) |
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Probability distribution from the canonical ensemble gives Boltzmann's law |
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138 | (1) |
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The free energy at equilibrium can be found using the partition function |
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139 | (2) |
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The internal energy at equilibrium can be determined using the partition function |
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141 | (1) |
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Using the canonical approach may be preferable for analyzing thermodynamic systems |
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142 | (1) |
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143 | (8) |
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A simple random walk can be demonstrated using soccer |
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143 | (2) |
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The diffusion equation can be derived from the random walk |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (1) |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 Cell Mechanics in the Laboratory |
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151 | (36) |
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6.1 Probing the mechanical behavior of cells through cellular micromanipulation |
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151 | (9) |
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Known forces can be applied to cells through the use of cell-bound beads and an electromagnet |
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152 | (1) |
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The dependence of force on distance from the magnet tip can be calibrated through Stokes' law |
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152 | (1) |
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Magnetic twisting and multiple-pole micromanipulators can apply stresses to many cells simultaneously |
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153 | (1) |
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Optical traps generate forces on particles through transfer of light momentum |
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153 | (1) |
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Ray tracing elucidates the origin of restoring forces in optical tweezers |
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154 | (1) |
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What are the magnitudes of forces in an optical trap? |
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155 | (1) |
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How does optical trapping compare with magnetic micromanipulation? |
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156 | (1) |
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Atomic force microscopy involves the direct probing of objects with a small cantilever |
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157 | (1) |
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Cantilever deflection is detected using a reflected laser beam |
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157 | (1) |
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Scanning and tapping modes can be used to obtain cellular topography |
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158 | (1) |
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A Hertz model can be used to estimate mechanical properties |
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158 | (2) |
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6.2 Measurement of forces produced by cells |
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160 | (7) |
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Traction force microscopy measures the forces exerted by a cell on its underlying surface |
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160 | (1) |
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Cross-correlation can be used for particle tracking |
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160 | (3) |
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Determining the forces that produced a displacement is an inverse problem |
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163 | (2) |
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Microfabricated micropillar arrays can be used to measure traction forces directly |
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165 | (1) |
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Surface modification can help determine how a cell interacts with its surroundings |
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166 | (1) |
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6.3 Applying forces to cells |
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167 | (6) |
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Flow chambers are used for studying cellular responses to fluid shear stress |
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167 | (1) |
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The transition between laminar and turbulent flow is governed by the Reynolds number |
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168 | (1) |
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Parallel plate flow devices can be designed for low Reynolds number shear flow |
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168 | (1) |
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Fully developed flow occurs past the entrance length |
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169 | (1) |
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Cone-and-plate flow can be used to study responses to shear |
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170 | (1) |
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Diverse device designs can be used to study responses to fluid flow |
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171 | (1) |
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Flexible substrates are used for subjecting cells to strain |
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172 | (1) |
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Confined uniaxial stretching can lead to multiaxial cellular deformations |
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172 | (1) |
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Cylindrically symmetric deformations generate uniform biaxial stretch |
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172 | (1) |
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6.4 Analysis of deformation |
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173 | (8) |
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Viscoelastic behavior in micromanipulation experiments can be parameterized through spring-dashpot models |
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173 | (1) |
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Combinations of springs and dashpots can be used to model viscoelastic behavior |
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174 | (3) |
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Microscopy techniques can be adapted to visualize cells subject to mechanical loading |
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177 | (1) |
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Cellular deformations can be inferred from image sequences through image correlation-based approaches |
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178 | (1) |
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Intracellular strains can be computed from displacement fields |
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179 | (2) |
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6.5 Blinding and controls |
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181 | (6) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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184 | (3) |
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187 | (150) |
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Chapter 7 Mechanics of Cellular Polymers |
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189 | (34) |
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189 | (5) |
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Microfilaments are polymers composed of actin monomers |
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189 | (1) |
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F-actin polymerization is influenced by the molecular characteristics of G-actin |
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189 | (2) |
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Microtubules are polymers composed of tubulin dimers |
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191 | (1) |
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MT polymerization is affected by polarity and GTP/GDP binding |
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191 | (1) |
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Intermediate filaments are polymers with a diverse range in composition |
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192 | (1) |
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Intermediate filaments possess a coiled-coil structure |
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192 | (1) |
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Intermediate filaments have diverse functions in cells |
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192 | (2) |
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7.2 Polymerization kinetics |
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194 | (4) |
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Actin and MT polymerization can be modeled as a bimolecular reaction |
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195 | (1) |
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The critical concentration is the only concentration at which the polymer does not change length |
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195 | (1) |
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Polarity leads to different kinetics on each end |
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196 | (1) |
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Polymerization kinetics are affected by ATP/ADP in actin and GTP/GDP binding in tubulin |
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197 | (1) |
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Subunit polarity and ATP hydrolysis lead to polymer treadmilling |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (5) |
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Persistence length gives a measure of flexibility in a thermally fluctuating polymer |
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198 | (2) |
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Persistence length is related to flexural rigidity for an elastic beam |
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200 | (2) |
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Polymers can be classified as stiff, flexible, or semi-flexible by the persistence length |
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202 | (1) |
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203 | (7) |
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The ideal chain is a polymer model for flexible polymers |
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203 | (1) |
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The probability for the chain to have different end-to-end lengths can be determined from the random walk |
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204 | (3) |
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The free energy of the ideal chain can be computed from its probability distribution function |
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207 | (1) |
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Force is the gradient of free energy in thermodynamic systems |
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208 | (1) |
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The behavior of polymers tends toward that of an ideal chain in the limit of long contour length |
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209 | (1) |
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7.5 Freely jointed chain (FJC) |
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210 | (4) |
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The FJC model places a limit on polymer extension |
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210 | (1) |
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The force-displacement relation for the FJC can be found by the canonical ensemble |
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211 | (2) |
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Differences between the ideal chain and the FJC emerge at large forces |
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213 | (1) |
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7.6 Worm-like chain (WLC) |
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214 | (9) |
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The WLC incorporates energetic effects of bending |
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214 | (2) |
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The force-displacement relation for the WLC can be found by the canonical ensemble |
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216 | (1) |
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Differences in the WLC and FJC emerge when they are fitted to experimental data for DNA |
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217 | (1) |
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Persistence length is related to Kuhn length |
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218 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Polymer Networks and the Cytoskeleton |
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223 | (26) |
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223 | (2) |
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Polymer networks have many degrees of freedom |
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223 | (1) |
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Effective continuums can be used to model polymer networks |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (4) |
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Cellular solids theory implies scaling relationships between effective mechanical properties and network volume fraction |
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225 | (1) |
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Bending-dominated deformation results in a nonlinear scaling of the elastic modulus with volume fraction |
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225 | (2) |
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Deformation dominated by axial strain results in a linear scaling of the elastic modulus with volume fraction |
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227 | (1) |
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The stiffness of tensegrity structures scales linearly with member prestress |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (7) |
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Affine deformations assume the filaments deform as if they are embedded in a continuum |
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229 | (1) |
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Flexible polymer networks can be modeled using rubber elasticity |
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230 | (3) |
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Anisotropic affine networks can be modeled using strain energy approaches |
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233 | (1) |
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Elastic moduli can be computed from strain energy density |
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233 | (2) |
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Elastic moduli of affine anisotropic networks can be calculated from appropriate strain energy density and angular distribution functions |
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235 | (1) |
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8.4 Biomechanical function and cytoskeletal structure |
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236 | (13) |
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Filopodia are cross-linked bundles of actin filaments involved in cell motility |
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236 | (1) |
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Actin filaments within filopodia can be modeled as elastic beams undergoing buckling |
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236 | (2) |
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The membrane imparts force on the ends of filopodia |
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238 | (1) |
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The maximum filopodium length before buckling in the absence of cross-linking is shorter than what is observed in vivo |
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238 | (1) |
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Cross-linking extends the maximum length before buckling |
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238 | (1) |
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Is the structure of the red blood cell's cytoskeleton functionally advantageous? |
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239 | (1) |
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Thin structures can be analyzed using the two-dimensional shear modulus and the areal strain energy density |
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240 | (2) |
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Sixfold connectivity facilitates resistance to shear |
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242 | (3) |
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Fourfold connectivity does not sustain shear as well as sixfold |
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245 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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247 | (2) |
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Chapter 9 Mechanics of the Cell Membrane |
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249 | (30) |
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249 | (3) |
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Water is a polar molecule |
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249 | (1) |
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Cellular membranes form by interacting with water |
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250 | (1) |
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The saturation of the lipid tails determines some properties of the membrane |
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251 | (1) |
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The cell membrane distinguishes inside and outside |
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251 | (1) |
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The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane describes its physical properties |
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252 | (1) |
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9.2 Phospholipid self-assembly |
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252 | (3) |
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Critical micelle concentration depends on amphiphile molecular structure |
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253 | (1) |
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Aggregate shape can be understood from packing constraints |
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254 | (1) |
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9.3 Membrane barrier function |
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255 | (4) |
|
The diffusion equations relate concentration to flux per unit area |
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|
256 | (1) |
|
Fick's second law shows how spatial concentration changes as a function of time |
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257 | (2) |
|
9.4 Membrane mechanics I: In-plane shear and tension |
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|
259 | (8) |
|
Thin structures such as membranes can be treated as plates or shells |
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|
260 | (1) |
|
Kinematic assumptions help describe deformations |
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|
260 | (2) |
|
A constitutive model describes material behavior |
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|
262 | (1) |
|
The equilibrium condition simplifies for in-plane tension and shear |
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|
262 | (3) |
|
Equilibrium simplifies in the case of shear alone |
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|
265 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium simplifies in the case of equibiaxial tension |
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|
266 | (1) |
|
Areal strain can be a measure of biaxial deformation |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
9.5 Membrane mechanics II: Bending |
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|
267 | (5) |
|
In bending the kinematics are governed by membrane rotation |
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|
268 | (1) |
|
Linear elastic behavior is assumed for the constitutive model |
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|
269 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium places conditions on resultant forces and moments |
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|
269 | (3) |
|
Which dominates, tension or bending? |
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|
272 | (1) |
|
9.6 Measurement of bending rigidity |
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272 | (7) |
|
Membranes undergo thermal undulations similar to polymers |
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|
272 | (1) |
|
Membranes straighten out with tension |
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273 | (2) |
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275 | (1) |
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|
275 | (2) |
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277 | (2) |
|
Chapter 10 Adhesion, Migration, and Contraction |
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|
279 | (32) |
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279 | (13) |
|
Cells can form adhesions with the substrate |
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|
279 | (2) |
|
Fluid shear can be used to measure adhesion strength indirectly |
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|
281 | (1) |
|
Detachment forces can be measured through direct cellular manipulation |
|
|
281 | (1) |
|
The surface tension/liquid-drop model can be used to describe simple adhesion |
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|
282 | (2) |
|
Adhesive peeling can be modeled using continuum mechanics |
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|
284 | (2) |
|
Adhesion energy density can be obtained through consideration of strain energy |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
Targeting of white blood cells during inflammation involves the formation of transient and stable intercellular adhesions |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
Kinetics of receptor-ligand binding can be described with the law of mass action |
|
|
288 | (2) |
|
The Bell model describes the effect of force on dissociation rate |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
Shear enhances neutrophil adhesion---up to a point |
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|
291 | (1) |
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|
292 | (6) |
|
Cell migration can be studied in vitro and in vivo |
|
|
292 | (1) |
|
Cell locomotion occurs in distinct steps |
|
|
292 | (1) |
|
Protrusion is driven by actin polymerization |
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
Actin polymerization at the leading edge: involvement of Brownian motion? |
|
|
294 | (1) |
|
Cell motion can be directed by external cues |
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|
295 | (1) |
|
Cell migration can be characterized by speed and persistence time |
|
|
296 | (2) |
|
Directional bias during cell migration can be obtained from cell trajectories |
|
|
298 | (1) |
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|
298 | (13) |
|
Muscle cells are specialized cells for contractile force generation |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
Studying cardiac function gave early insight into muscle function |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
The skeletal muscle system generates skeletal forces for ambulation and mobility |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
The Hill equation describes the relationship between muscle force and velocity |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
Non-muscle cells can generate contractile forces within stress fibers |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
Stress fiber pre-strain can be measured from buckling behavior |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
Myosin cross-bridges generate sliding forces within actin bundles |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
Myosin molecules work together to produce sliding |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
The power-stroke model is a mechanical model of actomyosin interactions |
|
|
305 | (3) |
|
|
|
308 | (1) |
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|
308 | (2) |
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|
|
310 | (1) |
|
Chapter 11 Cellular Mechanotransduction |
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|
311 | (26) |
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|
311 | (7) |
|
Vascular endothelium experiences blood-flow-mediated shear stress |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
Lumen-lining epithelial cells are subjected to fluid flow |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
Fluid flow occurs in musculoskeletal tissues |
|
|
313 | (2) |
|
Fluid flow during embryonic development regulates the establishment of left-right asymmetry |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
Strain and matrix deformation function as regulatory signals |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Smooth muscle cells and cardiac myocytes are subjected to strain in the cardiovascular system |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Cellular strain in the musculoskeletal system is dependent on tissue stiffness |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
The lung and bladder are hollow elastic organs that are regulated by stretch |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
Cells can respond to hydrostatic pressure |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
11.2 Mechanosensing organelles and structures |
|
|
318 | (8) |
|
Stereocilia are the mechanosensors of the ear |
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
Specialized structures are used in touch sensation |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
Primary cilia are nearly ubiquitous, but functionally mysterious |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
Cellular adhesions can sense as well as transmit force |
|
|
321 | (1) |
|
The cytoskeleton can sense mechanical loads |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
Mechanosensing can involve the glycoproteins covering the cell |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
The cell membrane is ideally suited to sense mechanical loads |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
Lipid rafts affect the behavior of proteins within the membrane |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
11.3 Initiation of intracellular signaling |
|
|
326 | (4) |
|
Ion channels can be mechanosensitive |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
Hydrophobic mismatches allow the mechanical gating of membrane channels |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
Mechanical forces can expose cryptic binding sites |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
Bell's equation describes protein unfolding kinetics |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
Molecular conformation changes can be detected fluorescently |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
11.4 Alteration of cellular function |
|
|
330 | (7) |
|
Intracellular calcium increases in response to mechanical stress |
|
|
330 | (1) |
|
Nitric oxide, inositol triphosphate, and cyclic AMP, like Ca2+, are second messenger molecules implicated in mechanosensation |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
Mitogen-activated protein kinase activity is altered after exposure to mechanical stimulation |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
Mechanically stimulated cells exhibit prostanglandin release |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
Mechanical forces can induce morphological changes in cells |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
Mechanical stimulation can induce extracellular matrix remodeling |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
Cell viability and apoptosis are altered by different processes |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
|
335 | (2) |
| Abbreviations |
|
337 | (1) |
| List of variables and units |
|
338 | (5) |
| Index |
|
343 | |
