| About the Author |
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xix | |
| Preface |
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xxi | |
| Acknowledgments |
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xxix | |
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SECTION I FOUNDATIONS FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH |
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1 | (108) |
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Chapter 1 Science, Society, and Social Research |
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2 | (29) |
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Learning About the Social World |
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4 | (3) |
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Motives for Social Research |
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7 | (1) |
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Avoiding Errors in Reasoning About the Social World |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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12 | (2) |
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Science and Social Science |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (2) |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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Strengths and Limitations of Social Research |
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22 | (1) |
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Alternative Research Orientations |
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23 | (1) |
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Quantitative and/or Qualitative Methods |
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23 | (1) |
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Philosophical Perspectives |
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24 | (1) |
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Basic Science or Applied Research |
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24 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (2) |
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27 | (1) |
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27 | (2) |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 The Process and Problems of Social Research |
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31 | (44) |
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Social Research Questions |
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33 | (1) |
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Identifying Social Research Questions |
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34 | (1) |
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Refining Social Research Questions |
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34 | (1) |
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Evaluating Social Research Questions |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (2) |
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39 | (1) |
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Searching for Prior Research |
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40 | (1) |
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40 | (3) |
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43 | (2) |
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45 | (2) |
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Single-Article Reviews: Aggressive Policing and Educational Performance of Minority Youth |
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47 | (2) |
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Integrated Literature Reviews: When Does Arrest Matter? |
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49 | (2) |
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Systematic Literature Reviews: Second Responder Programs and Repeat Family Abuse Incidents |
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51 | (5) |
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Social Research Strategies |
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56 | (2) |
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58 | (1) |
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58 | (2) |
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Body-Worn Cameras and the Research Circle |
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60 | (2) |
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62 | (1) |
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An Inductive Approach to Explaining Support for Black Lives Matter |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (1) |
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Black Youths' Strategies for Navigating Police Contact |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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Social Research Standards |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (1) |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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71 | (1) |
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71 | (2) |
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73 | (1) |
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73 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 Research Ethics and Research Proposals |
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75 | (34) |
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78 | (3) |
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81 | (1) |
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Achievement of Valid Results |
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81 | (2) |
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83 | (2) |
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Protection of Research Participants |
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85 | (1) |
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Avoid Harming Research Participants |
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85 | (4) |
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89 | (1) |
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Avoid Deception in Research. Except in Limited Circumstances |
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90 | (2) |
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Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality |
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92 | (1) |
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Consider Uses of Research So That Benefits Outweigh Risks |
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92 | (2) |
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94 | (4) |
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The Institutional Review Board |
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98 | (2) |
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Social Research Proposals |
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100 | (3) |
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Case Study: Evaluating a Public Health Program |
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103 | (2) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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106 | (2) |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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SECTION II FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH |
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109 | (118) |
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Chapter 4 Conceptualization and Measurement |
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110 | (40) |
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112 | (1) |
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Conceptualization in Practice |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (4) |
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From Concepts to Indicators |
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117 | (1) |
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Operationalizing the Concept of Race |
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118 | (2) |
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Operationalizing Perceived Threat From Immigrants |
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120 | (2) |
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The Inductive Approach to Conceptualization |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (3) |
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126 | (1) |
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Collecting Unobtrusive Measures |
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127 | (1) |
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127 | (1) |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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Combining Measurement Operations |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
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Nominal Level of Measurement |
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131 | (1) |
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Ordinal Level of Measurement |
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132 | (1) |
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Interval Level of Measurement |
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133 | (1) |
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Ratio Level of Measurement |
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133 | (2) |
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The Special Case of Dichotomies |
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135 | (1) |
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Comparison of Levels of Measurement |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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139 | (1) |
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Multiple Times: Test-Retest and Alternate Forms |
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139 | (1) |
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Multiple Indicators: Interitem and Split-Half |
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140 | (1) |
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Multiple Observers: Interobserver and Intercoder |
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140 | (2) |
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Ways to Improve Reliability and Validity |
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142 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (3) |
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147 | (2) |
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149 | (1) |
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Chapter 5 Sampling and Generalizability |
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150 | (43) |
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152 | (1) |
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152 | (1) |
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Define Sample Components and the Population |
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152 | (2) |
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154 | (2) |
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Assess the Diversity of the Population |
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156 | (1) |
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157 | (1) |
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Probability and Representativeness |
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158 | (6) |
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Probability Sampling Methods |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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Systematic Random Sampling |
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166 | (1) |
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Stratified Random Sampling |
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167 | (5) |
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Multistage Cluster Sampling |
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172 | (1) |
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Probability Sampling Methods Compared |
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173 | (1) |
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Nonprobability Sampling Methods |
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174 | (1) |
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Availability (Convenience) Sampling |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (2) |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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Respondent-Driven Sampling |
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179 | (1) |
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Lessons About Sample Quality |
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179 | (2) |
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Generalizability With Web-Based Samples |
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181 | (1) |
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Generalizability in Qualitative Research |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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Estimating Sampling Error |
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184 | (2) |
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Sample Size Considerations |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (3) |
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191 | (1) |
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191 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 Research Design and Causation |
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193 | (34) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (2) |
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The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism |
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198 | (2) |
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Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs |
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200 | (1) |
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200 | (2) |
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202 | (5) |
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Nomothetic or Idiographic Causal Explanations |
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207 | (1) |
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Nomothetic Causal Explanations |
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208 | (1) |
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Idiographic Causal Explanations |
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209 | (1) |
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Criteria for Nomothetic Causal Explanations |
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210 | (2) |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (2) |
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216 | (1) |
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216 | (2) |
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Cautions for Nomothetic Causal Explanations |
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218 | (1) |
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218 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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Comparing Research Designs |
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220 | (2) |
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222 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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SECTION III BASIC SOCIAL RESEARCH DESIGNS |
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227 | (202) |
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228 | (32) |
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230 | (1) |
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Experimental and Comparison Groups |
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230 | (2) |
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Pretest and Posttest Measures |
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232 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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Limitations of True Experimental Designs |
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234 | (1) |
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Summary: Causality in True Experiments |
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235 | (1) |
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Association Between the Hypothesized Independent and Dependent Variables |
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236 | (1) |
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Time Order of Effects of One Variable on the Others |
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236 | (1) |
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Nonspurious Relationships Between Variables |
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236 | (1) |
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Mechanism That Creates the Causal Effect |
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236 | (1) |
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Context in Which Change Occurs |
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236 | (2) |
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238 | (1) |
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Nonequivalent Control Group Designs |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (2) |
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Summary: Causality in Quasi-Experiments |
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242 | (1) |
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Association Between the Hypothesized Independent and Dependent Variables |
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242 | (1) |
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Time Order of Effects of One Variable on the Others |
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242 | (1) |
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Nonspurious Relationships Between Variables |
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242 | (1) |
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Mechanism That Creates the Causal Effect |
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243 | (1) |
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Context in Which Change Occurs |
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243 | (1) |
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Nonexperimental Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs |
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244 | (1) |
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Causal (Internal] Validity in Experiments |
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244 | (1) |
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Sources of Internal Invalidity Reduced by a Comparison Group |
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244 | (1) |
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Sources of Internal Invalidity Reduced by Randomization |
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245 | (1) |
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Sources of Internal Invalidity That Require Attention While the Experiment |
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246 | (2) |
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Generalizability in Experiments |
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248 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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249 | (2) |
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251 | (1) |
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Interaction of Testing and Treatment |
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251 | (1) |
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Ethical Issues in Experimental Research |
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252 | (1) |
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252 | (2) |
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Selective Distribution of Benefits |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (2) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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Chapter 8 Survey Research |
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260 | (41) |
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Survey Research in the Social Sciences |
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261 | (1) |
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Attractions of Survey Research |
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262 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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Errors in Survey Research |
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264 | (1) |
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264 | (1) |
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264 | (1) |
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Inadequate Coverage of the Population |
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264 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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265 | (2) |
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Minimize the Risk of Bias |
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267 | (1) |
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Maximize the Utility of Response Categories |
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267 | (2) |
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Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement Disagreeable |
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269 | (2) |
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Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating |
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271 | (1) |
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Combining Questions in Indexes |
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272 | (3) |
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275 | (1) |
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Build on Existing Instruments |
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275 | (1) |
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Refine and Test Questions |
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275 | (1) |
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Add Interpretive Questions |
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276 | (1) |
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Maintain Consistent Focus |
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277 | (1) |
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277 | (1) |
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Make the Questionnaire Attractive |
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278 | (1) |
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Consider Language and Culture |
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279 | (1) |
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279 | (1) |
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Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys |
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280 | (3) |
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Group-Administered Surveys |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | |
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Maximizing Response to Phone Surveys |
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284 | (2) |
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286 | (1) |
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Maximizing Response to Interviews |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (2) |
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290 | (1) |
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A Comparison of Survey Designs |
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291 | (2) |
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Ethical Issues in Survey Research |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (3) |
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298 | (1) |
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299 | (2) |
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Chapter 9 Quantitative Data Analysis |
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301 | (48) |
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303 | (1) |
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Case Study: The Likelihood of Voting |
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303 | (3) |
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Preparing for Data Analysis |
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306 | (1) |
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Displaying Univariate Distributions |
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307 | (1) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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309 | (1) |
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310 | (1) |
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311 | (1) |
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312 | (1) |
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312 | (2) |
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Combined and Compressed Distributions |
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314 | (1) |
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Summarizing Univariate Distributions |
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315 | (1) |
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Measures of Central Tendency |
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316 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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318 | (2) |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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Cross-Tabulating Variables |
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324 | (1) |
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Constructing Contingency Tables |
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324 | (3) |
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327 | (2) |
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329 | (1) |
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330 | (3) |
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Controlling for a Third Variable |
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333 | (1) |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (3) |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (3) |
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341 | (2) |
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343 | (1) |
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343 | (1) |
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344 | (3) |
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347 | (1) |
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347 | (2) |
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Chapter 10 Qualitative Methods |
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349 | (38) |
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Fundamentals of Qualitative Methods |
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351 | (1) |
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History of Qualitative Research |
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351 | (1) |
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Features of Qualitative Research |
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352 | (1) |
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Collection Primarily of Qualitative Rather Than Quantitative Data |
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352 | (1) |
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A Focus on Previously Unstudied Processes and Unanticipated Phenomena |
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352 | (1) |
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Exploratory Research Questions, With a Commitment to Inductive Reasoning |
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352 | (1) |
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Sensitivity to the Subjective Rote of the Researcher (Reflexivity) |
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353 | (1) |
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An Orientation to Social Context, to the Interconnections Between Social Phenomena |
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Rather Than to Their Discrete Features |
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353 | (1) |
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A Focus on Human Subjectivity, on the Meanings That Participants Attach to Events and That People Give to Their Lives |
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353 | (1) |
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Use of Idiographic Rather Than Nomothetic Causal Explanation |
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353 | (1) |
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Acceptance--by Some Qualitative Researchers--of a Constructivist Philosophy |
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354 | (1) |
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Adaptive Research Design, in Which the Design Develops as the Research Progress |
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355 | (1) |
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Styles of Qualitative Research |
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355 | (1) |
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355 | (1) |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (1) |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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358 | (2) |
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360 | (1) |
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Overt Participation (Participant Observer) |
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360 | (1) |
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361 | (2) |
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363 | (1) |
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Developing and Maintaining Relationships |
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363 | (1) |
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Sampling People and Events |
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364 | (3) |
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367 | (1) |
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Managing the Personal Dimensions |
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367 | (2) |
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369 | (2) |
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Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership |
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371 | (1) |
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Asking Questions and Recording Answers |
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372 | (1) |
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372 | (2) |
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374 | (1) |
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Generalizability in Qualitative Research |
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375 | (1) |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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378 | (1) |
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379 | (1) |
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379 | (1) |
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380 | (1) |
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381 | (1) |
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382 | (1) |
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382 | (3) |
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385 | (1) |
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386 | (1) |
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Chapter 11 Qualitative Data Analysis |
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387 | (42) |
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Features of Qualitative Data Analysis |
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389 | (1) |
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Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art |
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390 | (2) |
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Qualitative Compared With Quantitative Data Analysis |
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392 | (1) |
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Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis |
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393 | (1) |
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394 | (1) |
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Coding, Categorization, and Condensation |
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395 | (4) |
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Examination and Display of Relationships |
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399 | (1) |
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Corroboration and Legitimization of Conclusions |
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400 | (1) |
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Reflection on the Researcher's Role |
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401 | (1) |
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Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis |
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402 | (1) |
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402 | (2) |
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404 | (1) |
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Case-Oriented Understanding |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (3) |
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Qualitative Comparative Analysis |
|
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409 | (1) |
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Combining Qualitative Methods |
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410 | (1) |
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411 | (3) |
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|
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414 | (1) |
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Participatory Action Research |
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415 | (3) |
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Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis |
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418 | (2) |
|
Ethics in Qualitative Data Analysis |
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420 | (2) |
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Privacy, Confidentiality, and Anonymity |
|
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422 | (1) |
|
Intervention and Advocacy |
|
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423 | (1) |
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Research Integrity and Qquality |
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423 | (1) |
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Ownership of Data and Conclusions |
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423 | (1) |
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Use and Misuse of Results |
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424 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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425 | (1) |
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425 | (2) |
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427 | (1) |
|
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
SECTION IV COMPLEX SOCIAL RESEARCH DESIGNS |
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|
429 | (163) |
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430 | (23) |
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432 | (2) |
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Diagramming Mixed Methods |
|
|
434 | (2) |
|
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
Integrated Mixed-Methods Designs |
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436 | (2) |
|
Embedded Mixed-Methods Designs |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Staged Mixed-Methods Designs |
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438 | (2) |
|
Complex Research Program Mixed-Methods Designs |
|
|
440 | (3) |
|
Strengths and Limitations of Mixed Methods |
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443 | (5) |
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|
|
448 | (1) |
|
|
|
449 | (1) |
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450 | (1) |
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450 | (2) |
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|
452 | (1) |
|
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|
452 | (1) |
|
Chapter 13 Evaluation and Policy Research |
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|
453 | (35) |
|
History of Evaluation Research |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
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|
457 | (2) |
|
Questions for Evaluation Research |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
|
|
461 | (2) |
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|
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463 | (3) |
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|
|
466 | (3) |
|
|
|
469 | (2) |
|
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
Black Box Evaluation or Program Theory |
|
|
471 | (2) |
|
Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation |
|
|
473 | (2) |
|
Quantitative or Qualitative Methods |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
Simple or Complex Outcomes |
|
|
476 | (2) |
|
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
|
|
478 | (2) |
|
|
|
480 | (3) |
|
|
|
483 | (1) |
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|
483 | (1) |
|
|
|
484 | (2) |
|
|
|
486 | (1) |
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|
|
487 | (1) |
|
Chapter 14 Using Secondary Data and Big Data |
|
|
488 | (33) |
|
|
|
490 | (1) |
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|
|
490 | (2) |
|
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Types of Data Available From ICPSR |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Obtaining Data From ICPSR |
|
|
493 | (2) |
|
Secondary Data From Government and Other Sources |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Integrated Public Use Microdata Series |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Bureau of Labor Statistics |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
Societal Experts Action Network (SEAN) |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
International Data Sources |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Challenges for Secondary Data Analyses |
|
|
500 | (5) |
|
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
Examples of Research Using Big Data |
|
|
507 | (2) |
|
|
|
509 | (2) |
|
Challenges for Using Big Data |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
Ethical Issues With Secondary Data and Big Data |
|
|
512 | (4) |
|
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
|
|
517 | (2) |
|
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
Chapter 15 Historical and Comparative Methods and Content Analysis |
|
|
521 | (38) |
|
Overview of Historical and Comparative Research Methods |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
Historical Social Science Methods |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Historical Events Research |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
Historical Process Research |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Cautions for Historical Methods |
|
|
529 | (2) |
|
Comparative Social Science Methods |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
Comparative Cross-Sectional Research |
|
|
531 | (5) |
|
Comparative Historical Research |
|
|
536 | (4) |
|
Comparative Case Study Designs |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Cautions for Comparative Methods |
|
|
541 | (2) |
|
|
|
543 | (2) |
|
|
|
545 | (3) |
|
Identify a Population of Documents or Other Textual Sources |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
Determine the Units of Analysis |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
Select a Sample of Units From the Population |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Design Coding Procedures for the Variables to Be Measured |
|
|
549 | (4) |
|
Develop Appropriate Statistical Analyses |
|
|
553 | (2) |
|
Ethical Issues in Historical and Comparative Research and Content Analysis |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
|
|
556 | (2) |
|
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Chapter 16 Summarizing and Reporting Research |
|
|
559 | (33) |
|
|
|
560 | (2) |
|
|
|
562 | (3) |
|
|
|
565 | |
|
Case Study: Vaccine Intentions Across |
|
|
28 | (539) |
|
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
Case Study.- Does Protest Against Police Violence Matter? |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
Findings From Living in Boston During COVID-19: Economic Impact |
|
|
573 | (2) |
|
Framing an Applied Report |
|
|
575 | (2) |
|
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Research Posters and Presentations |
|
|
577 | (3) |
|
Reporting Quantitative and Qualitative Research |
|
|
580 | (2) |
|
Ethics, Politics, and Research Reports |
|
|
582 | (2) |
|
|
|
584 | (2) |
|
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
587 | (3) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (2) |
| Appendix A Questions to Ask About a Research Article |
|
592 | (2) |
| Appendix B Table of Random Numbers |
|
594 | (5) |
| Glossary |
|
599 | (17) |
| Bibliography |
|
616 | (46) |
| Index |
|
662 | |
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