| Preface |
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xix | |
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Chapter One Communication Competence in Groups |
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2 | (40) |
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Myths about Communication |
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6 | (2) |
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Myth 1 Communication Is a Cure-all |
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6 | (1) |
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Myth 2 Communication Can Break Down |
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6 | (1) |
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Myth 3 Effective Communication Is Merely Skill Building |
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7 | (1) |
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Myth 4 Effective Communication Is Just Common Sense |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (12) |
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Communication as Transactional: The Four-Legged Perspective |
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10 | (1) |
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Communication as a Process: The Continuous Flow |
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11 | (1) |
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Communication as Sharing Meaning: Making Sense |
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12 | (1) |
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Verbal Communication: Telling It Like It Isn't |
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12 | (2) |
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Nonverbal Communication: Wordless Meaning |
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14 | (3) |
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Verbal and Nonverbal Interconnectedness: Joined at the Hip |
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17 | (2) |
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Context: The Communication Environment |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (6) |
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Effectiveness: Achieving Goals |
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20 | (1) |
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A Matter of Degree: From Deficiency to Proficiency |
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20 | (1) |
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We (Not Me) Oriented: Primacy of Groups |
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21 | (1) |
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Appropriateness: Following the Rules |
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21 | (1) |
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Focus on Culture: Individualism versus Collectivism: A Basic Cultural Difference |
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22 | (4) |
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Achieving Communication Competence |
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26 | (10) |
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Knowledge: Learning the Rules |
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26 | (2) |
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Skills: Showing, Not Just Knowing |
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28 | (1) |
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Sensitivity: Receptive Accuracy |
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29 | (1) |
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Commitment: A Passion for Excellence |
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29 | (1) |
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Ethics: The Right and Wrong of Communication |
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30 | (2) |
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Focus on Gender: Gender and Communication Competence |
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32 | (4) |
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36 | (6) |
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Groups: More than People Standing at a Bus Stop |
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36 | (2) |
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Interpersonal Communication and Public Speaking: Ungroups |
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38 | (4) |
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Chapter Two Groups as Systems |
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42 | (34) |
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Interconnectedness of Parts |
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45 | (8) |
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Ripple Effect: A Chain Reaction |
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46 | (1) |
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Synergy: One Plus One Equals a Ton |
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47 | (3) |
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Negative Synergy: Results Beyond Bad |
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50 | (3) |
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53 | (13) |
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Dynamic Equilibrium: Managing Stability and Change |
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54 | (1) |
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Closer Look: Dealing with Difficult Group Members: A System Perspective on "Bad Apples" |
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55 | (5) |
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Boundary Control: Regulating Input |
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60 | (1) |
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Communication Methods of Boundary Control: Erecting Barriers |
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61 | (1) |
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Physical Barriers: Protecting Group Space |
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61 | (1) |
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Psychological Barriers: Member in Name Only |
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61 | (1) |
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Linguistic Barriers: Having to Speak the Language |
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61 | (2) |
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Rules: Permission Not Granted |
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63 | (1) |
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63 | (1) |
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Networks: Controlling Information Flow |
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63 | (1) |
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Boundary Control and Group Effectiveness: Open and Closed Systems |
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64 | (2) |
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66 | (10) |
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Group Size and Complexity |
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66 | (1) |
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Quantitative Complexity: Exponentially Complicated |
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66 | (1) |
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Complexity and Group Transactions: Size Matters |
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67 | (2) |
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An Organization: A Group of Groups |
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69 | (7) |
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Chapter Three Group Development |
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76 | (40) |
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Primary Dimensions of Groups |
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78 | (2) |
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Task and Social Dimensions: Working and Socializing |
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79 | (1) |
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Building Cohesiveness: Bringing Us Together |
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80 | (1) |
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Periodic Phases of Group Development |
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80 | (21) |
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Forming: Gathering Members |
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81 | (1) |
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Reasons We Join Groups: Motivation |
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81 | (2) |
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Member Diversity: The Benefits and Challenges of Difference |
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83 | (3) |
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Storming: Feeling the Tension |
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86 | (1) |
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Primary Tension: Initial Uneasiness |
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86 | (1) |
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Secondary Tension: Later Stress and Strain |
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87 | (2) |
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Norming: Regulating the Group |
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89 | (1) |
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Types of Norms: Explicit and Implicit |
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89 | (1) |
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Purpose and Sources of Norms: Achieving Group Goals |
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90 | (1) |
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Degree of Conformity: Strength of Group Pressure |
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91 | (3) |
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Why We Conform: Fitting In |
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94 | (1) |
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Closer Look: High School Cliques: A Lesson in Conformity |
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94 | (2) |
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Conditions for Conformity: When We Bow to Group Pressure |
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96 | (1) |
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Closer Look: Hazing Rituals: From Water Torture to Liver Swallowing |
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96 | (3) |
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Addressing Nonconformity: When Groups Get Tough |
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99 | (2) |
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101 | (9) |
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Motivation to Perform: Social Loafing and Social Compensation |
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103 | (3) |
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When Groups Outperform Individuals: Three Heads Are Better than One |
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106 | (2) |
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When Individuals Outperform Groups: No Magic in Groups |
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108 | (2) |
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Newcomers and Group Development |
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110 | (6) |
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Nature of the Group: The Challenge of Acceptance |
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110 | (2) |
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Newcomer Strategies: Gaining Acceptance |
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112 | (1) |
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Group Socialization Strategies: Adjusting to Newcomers |
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112 | (4) |
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Chapter Four Developing the Group Climate |
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116 | (30) |
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Competition and Cooperation |
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118 | (13) |
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Definitions: Conceptual Clarity |
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119 | (1) |
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Competition: Winners Take All |
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119 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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Individual Achievement: Going It Alone |
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120 | (1) |
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Hypercompetitiveness: Winning Is Everything |
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121 | (1) |
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Constructive Competition: Tempering the Need to Win |
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122 | (1) |
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Necessary Conditions: A Trinity |
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123 | (2) |
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Competition and Communication Competence: Can Me Be We? |
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125 | (1) |
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Intragroup Competition and Cooperation: Challenging Orthodoxy |
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126 | (1) |
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Group Productivity: Achievement and Performance on Tasks |
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126 | (1) |
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Group Cohesiveness: Social Relationships among Group Members |
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127 | (1) |
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Intergroup Competition and Cooperation: Them versus Us |
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127 | (2) |
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Focus on Culture: Competition and Culture |
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129 | (2) |
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Communication and Group Climate |
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131 | (15) |
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Defensive and Supportive Communication: Shaping Group Climate |
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131 | (1) |
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Evaluation versus Description |
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131 | (4) |
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Control versus Problem Orientation |
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135 | (2) |
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Manipulation versus Assertiveness |
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137 | (1) |
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Indifference versus Empathy |
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138 | (1) |
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Superiority versus Equality |
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138 | (1) |
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Certainty versus Provisionalism |
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139 | (1) |
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Reciprocal Patterns: Like Begets Like |
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140 | (1) |
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Competitive and Noncompetitive Listening: Shifting and Supporting |
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141 | (1) |
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Shift Response versus Support Response: Focusing on Me or Thee |
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142 | (1) |
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Competitive Interrupting: Seizing the Floor |
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143 | (1) |
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Ambushing: Preparing Rebuttals |
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143 | (3) |
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Chapter Five Roles and Leadership in Groups |
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146 | (44) |
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149 | (9) |
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Influence of Roles: Not Just Playing Games |
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149 | (1) |
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Role Reversal: When Students Become Teachers |
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149 | (1) |
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Closer Look: The Stanford Prison Study |
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150 | (3) |
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Role Conflict: Torn between Two Roles |
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153 | (1) |
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Types of Roles: Formal and Informal |
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153 | (2) |
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Role Emergence: Springing to Life |
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155 | (1) |
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Group Endorsement: Accepting a Bid |
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155 | (2) |
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Role Specialization: Settling into One's Role |
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157 | (1) |
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Role Fixation: Stuck Playing One Part |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (32) |
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Definition of Leadership: An Evolving Consensus |
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160 | (1) |
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Leadership and Influence: A Two-Way Process |
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160 | (1) |
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Leadership and Followership: It Takes Two to Tango |
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160 | (1) |
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Leader versus Manager: Interpersonal versus Positional Influence |
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161 | (2) |
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Leadership and Communication: Duct-Taped Together |
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163 | (1) |
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Gaining and Retaining Leadership: Getting There Is Just the Start |
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164 | (1) |
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How Not to Become a Leader: Thou Shalt Not |
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164 | (1) |
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General Pattern of Leader Emergence: Process of Elimination |
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165 | (2) |
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Retaining the Leader Role: Hanging onto Power |
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167 | (1) |
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Focus on Gender/Ethnicity: Gender and Ethnic Bias in Leader Emergence |
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168 | (3) |
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Perspectives on Effective Leadership: An Evolving View |
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171 | (1) |
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Traits Perspective: The Born Leader View |
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172 | (2) |
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Styles Perspective: One Style Doesn't Fit All |
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174 | (4) |
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Situational (Contingency) Perspective: Matching Styles with Circumstances |
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178 | (3) |
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Functional Perspective: Leadership Responsibilities |
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181 | (2) |
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Servant Leadership Perspective: Ethics in Leadership |
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183 | (2) |
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Culture and Leadership: Are Leadership Theories Universal? |
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185 | (5) |
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Chapter Six Developing Effective Teams |
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190 | (32) |
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How Teams Differ from Groups |
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193 | (3) |
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Level of Cooperation: The Working Together Imperative |
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193 | (1) |
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Diversity of Skills: Looking for Complementarity |
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194 | (1) |
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Group Identity: Operating as a Unit |
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195 | (1) |
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Time and Resources: Commitment to the Team |
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195 | (1) |
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196 | (5) |
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Team Slayers: Members' Bad Attitudes and Bad Behavior |
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197 | (1) |
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Egocentrism: Me-Deep in Omnipotence |
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197 | (1) |
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Cynicism: Communicating a Can't-Do Attitude |
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198 | (1) |
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Verbal/Nonverbal Abuse: Bad Behavior Kills Teams |
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198 | (1) |
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Team Member Removal: Purging the Rotten Egg |
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198 | (1) |
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Team Builders: Choosing and Developing Team Members |
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199 | (1) |
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Experience and Problem-Solving Abilities: Core Competencies |
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199 | (1) |
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Cultural Diversity: Members with Different Perspectives |
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200 | (1) |
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Communication Training: Developing Members' Competence |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (16) |
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Developing Team Goals: The Four Cs |
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202 | (1) |
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Clear Goals: Everyone on the Same Page |
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202 | (1) |
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Cooperative Goals: Interdependent Challenges |
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203 | (1) |
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Challenging Goals: Denting the Universe |
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204 | (1) |
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Commitment to Goals: A Passion to Succeed |
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205 | (1) |
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Developing a Team Identity: Uniifying Members |
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205 | (1) |
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Symbolic Convergence: Communicating Fantasy Themes |
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205 | (1) |
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Solidarity Symbols: Unifying Nonverbally |
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206 | (1) |
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Team Talk: The Language of We |
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207 | (2) |
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Designating Clear, Appropriate Roles: Room for One Quarterback |
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209 | (2) |
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Structuring Team Empowerment: Enhancing Members' Capabilities |
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211 | (1) |
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Definition of Empowerment: Four Dimensions |
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211 | (1) |
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Hierarchical Organizations: The Enemy of Empowerment |
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212 | (1) |
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Quality Circles: Lame First Attempt |
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213 | (1) |
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Self-Managing Work Teams: The IDEO Model |
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213 | (1) |
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Impediments to Team Empowerment: No Buy-In |
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213 | (1) |
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Closer Look: IDEO and Team Empowerment |
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214 | (3) |
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Establishing Individual Accountability: Providing Feedback |
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217 | (1) |
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Competent Team Leadership |
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217 | (5) |
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Fostering Participative Leadership: Nurturing Empowerment |
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218 | (1) |
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Insisting on a Cooperative Communication Climate: Jerks Need Not Apply |
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219 | (1) |
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Decision Making and Problem Solving: Using a Plan |
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220 | (2) |
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Chapter Seven Group Discussion: Defective Group Decision Making and Problem Solving |
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222 | (36) |
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Information Overload: Too Much Input |
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225 | (8) |
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Scope of the Problem: The Information Avalanche |
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225 | (1) |
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Consequences: The Downside of Information |
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226 | (1) |
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Impairs Critical Thinking: Separating Wheat from Chaff |
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227 | (1) |
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Indecisiveness: Conclusion Irresolution |
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227 | (1) |
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Closer Look: Technology and the Bias of Speed |
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228 | (1) |
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Information Bulimia: Binging and Purging |
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229 | (1) |
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Group Attention Deficit Disorder: Difficulty Concentrating |
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229 | (1) |
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Coping with Information Overload: Wrestling the Beast |
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230 | (1) |
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Screening Information: Separating the Useful from the Useless |
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230 | (1) |
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Shutting Off Technology: Hitting the Off Switch |
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230 | (1) |
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Specializing: Knowing More and More about Less and Less |
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231 | (1) |
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Becoming Selective: On a Need-to-Know Basis |
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231 | (1) |
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Limiting the Search: When Enough Is Enough |
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231 | (1) |
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Narrowing the Search: Databases and Patterns |
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231 | (2) |
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Information Underload: Poor Sharing |
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233 | (1) |
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Mindsets: Critical Thinking Frozen Solid |
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234 | (3) |
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Confirmation Bias: One-Sided Information Searches |
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234 | (1) |
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The Problem: Poor Decisions and Solutions |
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235 | (1) |
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Combating Confirmation Bias: A Plan |
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236 | (1) |
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False Dichotomies: Either-Or Thinking |
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236 | (1) |
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Collective Inferential Error: Uncritical Thinking |
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237 | (7) |
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Prevalence of the Problem: It's a Group Thing |
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238 | (1) |
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Specific Sources of Inferential Errors |
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239 | (1) |
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Unrepresentativeness: Distorting the Facts |
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239 | (2) |
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Correlation Inferred as Causation: Covariation |
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241 | (2) |
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Error Correction: Practicing Critical Thinking |
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243 | (1) |
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Group Polarization: Extremely Uncritical Thinking |
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244 | (3) |
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Polarization: From Gambling to Guarded |
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244 | (2) |
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Why Groups Polarize: Social Comparison and Persuasive Arguments |
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246 | (1) |
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Combating Group Polarization: Necessary Steps |
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247 | (1) |
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Groupthink: Critical Thinking in Suspended Animation |
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247 | (11) |
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General Conditions: Excessive Cohesiveness and Concurrence Seeking |
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248 | (1) |
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Identification of Groupthink: Main Symptoms |
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249 | (1) |
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Overestimation of the Group's Power and Morality: Arrogance |
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249 | (2) |
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Closed-Mindedness: Clinging to Assumptions |
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251 | (1) |
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Pressures toward Uniformity: Presenting a United Front |
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251 | (2) |
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Preventing Groupthink: Promoting Vigilance |
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253 | (5) |
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Chapter Eight Group Discussion: Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving |
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258 | (42) |
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261 | (6) |
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Phases and Functions: General Considerations |
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261 | (1) |
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Multiple Sequence Model: Phases of Decision Making |
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261 | (1) |
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Functional Perspective: Being Systematic |
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262 | (1) |
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The Standard Agenda: Structuring Group Discussion |
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263 | (1) |
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Problem Identification: What's the Question? |
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263 | (1) |
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Problem Analysis: Causes and Effects |
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264 | (1) |
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Solution Criteria: Setting Standards |
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264 | (1) |
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Closer Look: Different Criteria Produce Different Outcomes |
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265 | (2) |
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Solution Suggestions: Generating Alternatives |
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267 | (1) |
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Solution Evaluation and Selection: Deciding by Criteria |
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267 | (9) |
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Solution Implementation: Follow-through |
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268 | (2) |
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Closer Look: Murphy's Law |
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270 | (2) |
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Group Decision-Making Rules: Majority, Minority, Unanimity |
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272 | (1) |
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Majority Rule: Tyrannical or Practical |
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272 | (1) |
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Minority Rule: Several Types |
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272 | (1) |
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Unanimity Rule: Consensus |
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273 | (3) |
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276 | (2) |
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Cultural Diversity and Participation: Is Silence Golden? |
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276 | (2) |
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Increasing Constructive Participation: Jump-Starting Low-Participators |
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278 | (1) |
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Conducting Effective Meetings |
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278 | (4) |
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Group Meetings: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly |
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279 | (1) |
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Chair's and Members' Responsibilities: Controlling the Meeting Monster |
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279 | (3) |
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Critical Thinking and Effective Decision Making |
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282 | (7) |
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Gathering Information: Accumulating Input |
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282 | (2) |
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Evaluating Information: Applying Criteria |
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284 | (1) |
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Credibility: Is It Believable? |
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284 | (1) |
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Closer Look: The Internet: Resource for Information and Misinformation |
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285 | (2) |
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Currency: Is It Up to Date? |
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287 | (1) |
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Relevance: Looking for Logical Connections |
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287 | (1) |
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Representativeness: Reflecting the Facts |
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287 | (1) |
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Sufficiency: When Enough Really Is Enough |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (11) |
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289 | (2) |
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Specific Creative Techniques |
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291 | (1) |
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Brainstorming and Nominal Group Techniques: Generating Lots of Ideas |
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291 | (3) |
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Framing/Reframing: It's All In the Wording |
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294 | (1) |
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Integrative Problem Solving: Satisfying Everyone |
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295 | (5) |
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Chapter Nine Power in Groups: A Central Dynamic |
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300 | (44) |
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303 | (2) |
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The Nature of Power: No One Is Powerless |
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303 | (1) |
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Forms of Power: Competition and Cooperation Revisited |
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303 | (2) |
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305 | (6) |
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General Indicators: Labeling, Following, and Opposing |
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306 | (1) |
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Verbal Indicators: Relatively Powerless and Powerful Speech |
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306 | (1) |
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Focus on Gender/Culture: Powerful Language Differences |
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307 | (1) |
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Nonverbal Indicators: Silent Power |
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308 | (3) |
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311 | (9) |
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Information: Restricted or Scarce |
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311 | (1) |
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Expertise: Knowing and Showing |
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312 | (1) |
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Rewards and Punishments: Carrots and Sticks |
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313 | (2) |
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Personal Qualities: A Powerful Presence |
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315 | (1) |
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Legitimate Authority: You Will Obey |
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316 | (1) |
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Closer Look: The Milgram Studies |
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317 | (3) |
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Effects of Power Imbalances |
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320 | (4) |
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Physical Violence and Aggression: Waging Power Struggles |
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321 | (1) |
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Verbal and Nonverbal Contempt: Insulting Others |
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321 | (1) |
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Focus on Culture: Power Distance and Cultural Differences |
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322 | (2) |
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Addressing Power Imbalances |
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324 | (20) |
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324 | (1) |
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Alliance: Coalition Formation |
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325 | (1) |
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Resistance: Dragging Your Feet |
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326 | (1) |
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Strategic Stupidity: Smart Members Acting Dense |
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326 | (2) |
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Loss of Motor Function: Attack of the Clumsies |
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328 | (1) |
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The Misunderstanding Mirage: Feigning Confusion |
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328 | (1) |
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Selective Amnesia: Forgetting the Distasteful |
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329 | (1) |
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Tactical Tardiness: Not So Grand an Entrance |
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329 | (1) |
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Purposeful Procrastination: Intentional Delaying Tactic |
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330 | (2) |
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Defiance: Digging in Your Heels |
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332 | (1) |
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Threat of Contagion: Spreading Dissension |
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|
332 | (1) |
|
Variable Group Reaction: Discriminative Defiance |
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332 | (1) |
|
Defiant Member's Influence: Alone against the Group |
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333 | (1) |
|
Significance: Self-Empowerment |
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|
334 | (1) |
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Assertiveness: Neither Doormat nor Foot Wiper |
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334 | (6) |
|
Increasing Personal Power Resources: Mentoring and Networking |
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|
340 | (4) |
|
Chapter Ten Conflict Management in Groups |
|
|
344 | (38) |
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|
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348 | (3) |
|
General Definition: Interconnectedness, Incompatibility, and Interference |
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348 | (1) |
|
Benefits of Conflict: Dissent Can Be Productive |
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|
349 | (1) |
|
Destructive and Constructive Conflict: It's All in the Communication |
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|
350 | (1) |
|
Styles of Conflict Management |
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351 | (7) |
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Collaborating: Problem Solving |
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|
352 | (1) |
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Confrontation: Directly Addressing the Problem |
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|
352 | (1) |
|
Integration: Seeking Joint Gains |
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|
352 | (1) |
|
Smoothing: Calming Troubled Waters |
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|
353 | (1) |
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|
353 | (1) |
|
Compromising: Halving the Loaf |
|
|
354 | (1) |
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|
354 | (2) |
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|
356 | (1) |
|
Comparing Styles: Likelihood of Success |
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
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358 | (9) |
|
Types of Conflict: Task, Relationship, and Value |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
Task Conflict: Routine or Nonroutine |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
Relationship Conflict: It's Personal |
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
Closer Look: KILL Radio Conflict Case Study |
|
|
361 | (3) |
|
Values Conflict: Deeply Felt Struggles |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
Culture and Conflict: Communication Differences |
|
|
364 | (3) |
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|
|
367 | (7) |
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Tit for Tat: Do unto Others |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
Reformed Sinner: Spreading Redemption |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Positional Bargaining: Hard and Soft Negotiating |
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|
369 | (2) |
|
Principled Negotiation: Interest-Based Bargaining |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
The Four Principles: Appropriate Rules |
|
|
371 | (2) |
|
Remaining Unconditionally Constructive: Sound Judgment |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
The BATNA: Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
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|
374 | (8) |
|
Constructive and Destructive Anger: Intensity and Duration |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
Managing Your Own Anger: Taking Control |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
Managing the Anger of Others: Communication Jujitsu |
|
|
377 | (5) |
|
Chapter Eleven Technology and Virtual Groups |
|
|
382 | (26) |
|
Technological Group Options |
|
|
386 | (4) |
|
Text-Messaging: Typing Gone High-Tech |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
Audioconferences: Voice-Only Technology |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
Videoconferences: Sight and Sound |
|
|
388 | (2) |
|
Benefits and Challenges of Virtual Groups |
|
|
390 | (9) |
|
Time and Space: The Death of Distance |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
Decision Making: Quality of the Output |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
Social Relationships: Developing Personal Connections |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Power Distance: Prominence of Status Cues |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
Conflict: Constructive and Destructive |
|
|
394 | (2) |
|
Member Participation: Motivation to Perform |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
Social Anxiety: Reticence to Participate |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
Social Loafing: Virtually Unproductive |
|
|
396 | (2) |
|
Conversational Documentation: Transactional Transcripts |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
Virtual Group Effectiveness |
|
|
399 | (9) |
|
General Factors: Getting Set for Success |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Temporality: Long-Term versus Short-Term Virtual Groups |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Media Richness: The Lean and Meaty Theory |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Media Synchronicity: Extending MRT |
|
|
401 | (2) |
|
Specific Suggestions: Tentative Advice |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
Choosing Media: Richness and Synchronicity |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
Conducting Virtual Meetings: Special Challenges |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
Closer Look: ComCorp Case Study |
|
|
405 | (3) |
| Appendix A Group Oral Presentations |
|
408 | (14) |
| Appendix B Critical Thinking Revisited: Arguments and Fallacies |
|
422 | (5) |
| Glossary |
|
427 | (12) |
| References |
|
439 | (50) |
| Index |
|
489 | |
