Abstract |
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7 | (1) |
1.1 Introduction |
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7 | (2) |
1.2 Structures of Proteins |
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9 | (3) |
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1.2.1 Levels of Protein Structure |
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11 | (1) |
1.3 Chemical Synthesis of Protein and Peptides |
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12 | (10) |
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13 | (5) |
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1.3.1.1 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis |
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17 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Protein Synthesis by Peptide Ligation |
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18 | (1) |
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1.3.3 Peptide Ligation with Sulfur |
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19 | (1) |
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1.3.3.1 Prior Thiol Capture |
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19 | (1) |
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1.3.4 Peptide Ligation with Selenium |
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20 | (1) |
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1.3.5 General Strategies for Peptide Ligation |
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21 | (1) |
1.4 Instability Problems Associated with Proteins and Peptides |
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22 | (33) |
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1.4.1 Molecular Stability (Bio) Thermodynamics |
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30 | (2) |
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1.4.2 Thermodynamic Stability |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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1.4.4 Structural and Functional Stabilization of Monomeric and Multimeric Entities |
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34 | (21) |
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1.4.1.1 Stabilization of Protein Entities via Engineering at the Level of the Microenvironment |
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36 | (10) |
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1.4.1.1.1 Stabilization via Physical Containment |
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37 | (2) |
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1.4.1.1.2 Stabilization via Physical Adsorption onto Macroscopic Supports |
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39 | (1) |
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1.4.1.1.3 Stabilization via Chemical Bonding onto Highly Activated Supports |
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40 | (1) |
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1.4.1.1.4 Multipoint Covalent Immobilization |
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41 | (2) |
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1.4.1.1.5 Co-Immobilization with Polycationic Moieties |
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43 | (1) |
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1.4.1.1.6 Further Inter-Subunit Crosslinking with Polyfunctional Hydrophilic Macromolecules |
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44 | (2) |
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1.4.1.2 Stabilization of Protein Entities via Engineering at the Level of the Macroenvironment |
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46 | (9) |
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1.4.1.2.1 Medium Engineering |
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47 | (8) |
1.5 General Stability Issues |
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55 | (6) |
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1.5.1 Physical Instability |
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55 | (3) |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (1) |
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1.5.1.3 Aggregation and Precipitation |
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58 | (1) |
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1.5.2 Chemical Instability |
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58 | (4) |
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59 | (1) |
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1.5.2.2 Oxidation and Reduction |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (1) |
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1.5.2.4 Disulfide Exchange |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
1.6 Factors Affecting Delivery of Protein-Based Drugs |
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61 | (1) |
1.7 Physicochemical Properties of Peptides and Proteins |
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62 | (1) |
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1.7.1 Solubility and Partition Coefficient |
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62 | (1) |
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1.7.2 Aggregation, Self Association and Hydrogen Bonding |
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62 | (1) |
1.8 Barrier to Peptide and Protein Delivery |
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63 | (11) |
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63 | (1) |
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1.8.2 Intestinal Epithelial Barrier |
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63 | (4) |
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1.8.2.1 Passive and Carrier Mediated Transport |
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64 | (1) |
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1.8.2.2 Endocytosis and Transcytosis |
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64 | (3) |
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1.8.2.2.1 Fluid-Phase Type (Non Specific Endocytosis, Pinocytosis) |
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64 | (1) |
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1.8.2.2.2 Adsorptive or Receptor-Mediated Type (Specific Endocytosis) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (2) |
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1.8.2.3 Paracellular Movement |
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67 | (1) |
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1.8.3 Capillary Endothelial Barrier |
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67 | (3) |
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1.8.3.1 Mechanisms of Solute Transit |
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68 | (6) |
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1.8.3.1.1 Passive, Non-Facilitated |
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68 | (1) |
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1.8.3.1.2 Carrier-Mediated |
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69 | (1) |
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1.8.3.1.3 Receptor-Mediated |
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69 | (1) |
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1.8.3 Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) |
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70 | (4) |
1.9 Delivery of Protein and Peptide Drugs |
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74 | (86) |
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1.9.1 Parenteral Systemic Delivery |
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74 | (18) |
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1.9.1.1 Biomedical Applications |
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74 | (2) |
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1.9.1.2 Parenteral Drug Delivery Systems |
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76 | (14) |
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76 | (7) |
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1.9.1.2.2 Soluble Carriers (Macromolecules) |
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83 | (2) |
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85 | (5) |
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1.9.1.3 Pharmaceutical Approaches Related to Systemic Delivery of Protein and Peptide Drugs |
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90 | (2) |
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1.9.2 Non-Parenteral Systemic Delivery |
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92 | (56) |
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1.9.2.1 Oral Route [ 160] |
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92 | (33) |
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1.9.2.1.1 Strategies for Oral Delivery |
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96 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.2 Nobex Technology |
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97 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.3 Oral Delivery of Insulin |
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97 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.4 Potential Problem Associated with Oral Protein Delivery |
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98 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.5 Prodrug Approach |
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98 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.6 Modifications by Chemical Synthesis of Prodrugs and Analogs |
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99 | (4) |
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1.9.2.1.7 Site-Specific Delivery |
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103 | (4) |
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1.9.2.1.8 Use of Enzyme Inhibitors |
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107 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.9 Use of Absorption Enhancers |
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108 | (4) |
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1.9.2.1.10 Formulation Vehicles |
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112 | (3) |
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1.9.2.1.11 Dosage Form Modifications |
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115 | (6) |
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1.9.2.1.12 Drug Delivery via the Mucous Membranes of the Oral Cavity |
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121 | (2) |
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1.9.2.1.13 Emerging Trends in Oral Delivery of Peptide and Protein Drugs |
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123 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.14 Oral Delivery of Peptide Drugs: Barriers and Developments |
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123 | (1) |
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1.9.2.1.15 Protein Drug Oral Delivery: The Recent Progress |
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124 | (1) |
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1.9.2.2 Nasal Route [ 161] |
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125 | (6) |
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1.9.2.2.1 Nasal Delivery of Proteins |
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127 | (1) |
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1.9.2.2.2 Advantages of Nasal Route |
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128 | (1) |
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1.9.2.2.3 Mechanism to Facilitate Nasal Peptide and Protein Absorption |
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128 | (3) |
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131 | (4) |
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1.9.2.3.1 Various Adhesive Dosage Forms |
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133 | (1) |
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1.9.2.3.2 Factors and Strategies for Improving Buccal Absorption of Peptides |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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1.9.2.6 Adjuvants to Enhance the Absorption |
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137 | (2) |
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1.9.2.7 Importance of Lymphatic Uptake |
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139 | (1) |
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1.9.2.8 Transdermal Route |
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140 | (5) |
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1.9.2.8.1 Approaches for Transdermal Delivery |
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142 | (3) |
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145 | (3) |
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1.9.3 Paracellular Delivery of Peptides |
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148 | (1) |
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1.9.4 Lymphatic Transportation of Proteins |
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149 | (3) |
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1.9.4.1 Colorectal Transport |
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152 | (1) |
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1.9.4.2 Pulmonary Transport |
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152 | (1) |
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1.9.5 Site-Specific Protein Modification (Protein Engineering) |
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152 | (4) |
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1.9.5.1 Enzyme-Peg Conjugates |
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153 | (1) |
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1.9.5.2 Protein Glycosylation |
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154 | (1) |
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1.9.5.2.1 Expression Cell Processing |
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155 | (1) |
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1.9.5.3 Modification of Proteases into Peptide Ligases |
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155 | (1) |
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1.9.5.4 Production of Site Specific Nucleases |
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155 | (1) |
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1.9.5.5 Production of Artificial Semisynthetic Oxidoreductase (Flavo-Enzymes) |
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156 | (1) |
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1.9.7 Microencapsulation Of Protein Drugs For Drug Delivery: Strategy, Preparation, and Applications |
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156 | (4) |
1.10 Toxicity Profile Characterization |
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160 | (2) |
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1.10.1 Classes of Toxicity of Proteins and Peptides SU |
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160 | (9) |
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1.10.1.1 Exuberant Pharmacologic Responses BOH |
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160 | (1) |
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1.10.1.2 Generic Toxicity |
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160 | (2) |
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1.10.1.3 Idiopathic Toxicity |
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162 | (1) |
1.11 Pegylation and its Delivery Aspects |
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162 | (1) |
1.12 Novel Delivery Technologies |
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162 | (1) |
1.13 Recent Progress in Delivery of Protein and Peptide by Noninvasive Routes |
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163 | (1) |
1.14 Commercial Challenges of Protein Drug Delivery |
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164 | (1) |
1.15 Alternative Delivery Systems for Peptides and Proteins as Drugs |
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164 | (1) |
1.16 Polymeric Delivery of Proteins and Plasmid DNA for Tissue Engineering and Gene Therapy |
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165 | (1) |
1.17 Smart Polymer for Proteins and Peptides [ 186] |
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165 | (1) |
1.18 Hybrid Protein Delivery Systems [ 187] |
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166 | (1) |
1.19 Ligated Gene Fusion Hybrid Delivery Systems |
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166 | (1) |
1.20 Synthetically Linked Hybrid Conjugates |
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166 | (1) |
1.21 Peptide Targeting |
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166 | (3) |
1.22 Development of Delivery System for Peptide-Based Pharmaceuticals |
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169 | (3) |
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1.22.1 Formulation Consideration |
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169 | (1) |
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1.22.2 Pharmacokinetic Considerations |
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170 | (1) |
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1.22.3 Analytical Consideration |
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170 | (1) |
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1.22.4 Regulatory Consideration |
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170 | (2) |
1.23 Non-Covalent Peptide-Based Approach the Delivery of Proteins and Nucleic Acids |
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172 | (2) |
1.24 Protein Transduction Technology |
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174 | (2) |
1.25 Peptide and Protein Drugs: Delivery Problems |
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176 | (1) |
1.26 Intracellular Targets and Intracellular Drug Delivery |
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177 | (2) |
1.27 Homing Peptides as Targeted Delivery Vehicles |
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179 | (2) |
1.28 Drug Delivery of Oligonucleotides By Peptides |
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181 | (1) |
1.29 Nanotherapeutics for Nanobioconjugation of Peptide and Protein |
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182 | (8) |
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1.29.1 Methodology of Peptide and Protein Nanoencapsulation |
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184 | (3) |
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1.29.1.1 EmulsificationPolymerization |
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184 | (1) |
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1.29.1.2 Interfacial Polymerization |
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185 | (1) |
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1.29.1.3 Solvent Evaporation |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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1.29.2 Polymeric Nanocarriers |
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187 | (3) |
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1.29.2.1 Natural Nanocarriers |
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187 | (2) |
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1.29.2.2 Synthetic Nanocarriers |
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189 | (1) |
1.30 Therapeutic Use of Peptide and Proteins |
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190 | (1) |
Keywords |
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191 | (1) |
References |
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192 | |