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El. knyga: Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders

  • Formatas: PDF+DRM
  • Išleidimo metai: 18-Feb-2015
  • Leidėjas: Springer International Publishing AG
  • Kalba: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9783319127811
Kitos knygos pagal šią temą:
  • Formatas: PDF+DRM
  • Išleidimo metai: 18-Feb-2015
  • Leidėjas: Springer International Publishing AG
  • Kalba: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9783319127811
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This book provides a comprehensive account of the pathogenesis, clinical features, and management of ocular vascular occlusive disorders, with the focus very much on the scientific evidence. This offers a sound basis for addressing the many controversies that surround these disorders, which collectively constitute the most common cause of visual impairment or blindness. The book is divided into two sections, the first of which addresses the basic science and encompasses vascular anatomy, blood supply and flow, and retinal tolerance time to acute ischemia. The second, clinical, section covers the presentation, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of the full range of vascular occlusive disorders of the retina, the choroid, the anterior segment of the eye, ophthalmic manifestations of carotid artery disease and the optic nerve. Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders, written by a distinguished world leader in the field, will be invaluable for general ophthalmologists, and particularly for retina specialists, neuro-ophthalmologists, and researchers.
Part I Basic Sciences
1 The Ophthalmic Artery
3(28)
Origin
3(10)
Site of Origin of the Ophthalmic Artery from the Internal Carotid Artery
6(2)
Narrowing of the Internal Carotid Artery Beyond the Site of Origin of the Ophthalmic Artery
8(1)
Syntopical Relation of the Origin of the Ophthalmic Artery with the Intracranial Part of the Optic Nerve
8(1)
Caliber of the Ophthalmic Artery
9(1)
Abnormal Origins of the Ophthalmic Artery
9(4)
Course
13(5)
Intracranial Course
13(1)
Intracanalicular Course
13(1)
Intraorbital Course
14(4)
Termination of the Ophthalmic Artery
18(1)
Genesis of Variations of Origin and Course of the Ophthalmic Artery and Pattern of Its Branches
18(3)
Size
21(2)
Branches of the Ophthalmic Artery
23(3)
Pattern of Branching When the Ophthalmic Artery Crosses Over the Optic Nerve
25(1)
Pattern of Branching When Ophthalmic Artery Crosses Under the Optic Nerve
25(1)
Terminal Branches
26(1)
Anastomoses of the Ophthalmic Artery
26(1)
References
27(4)
2 The Central Retinal Artery
31(24)
Origin
31(2)
Source of Origin
31(1)
Number of CRAs
31(1)
Site of Origin from the Ophthalmic Artery
32(1)
Order of Origin from the Ophthalmic Artery
32(1)
Mode of Origin from the Ophthalmic Artery
33(1)
Course
33(4)
Intraorbital Part
33(2)
Intravaginal Part
35(1)
Intraneural Part
36(1)
Development of the CRA
37(1)
Innervation of the CRA
38(1)
Branches of the CRA
38(14)
Number and Incidence
39(1)
Size
40(1)
Distribution
41(5)
Anastomoses by the Branches
46(6)
References
52(3)
3 The Cilioretinal Arteries
55(10)
Anatomical Proof of the Presence of the Cilioretinal Artery
57(1)
Origin of Cilioretinal Arteries
58(1)
Number of Cilioretinal Arteries in an Eye
59(1)
Incidence of Cilioretinal Arteries
59(1)
Location of the Cilioretinal Artery
59(1)
Size and Area of the Retina Supplied by a Cilioretinal Artery
60(2)
Cilioretinal Arteries in Lower Mammals
62(1)
References
63(2)
4 The Posterior Ciliary Artery
65(34)
Anatomy of the Posterior Ciliary Arteries (PCAs)
66(3)
Number of Main PCAs
67(1)
Nomenclature
67(1)
Site of Origin
67(1)
Branches of the PCAs
68(1)
Distribution of the PCAs
69(1)
In Vivo Circulation and Distribution Pattern of the PCAs and Their Branches
69(13)
Areas Supplied by the Main PCAs
69(1)
Areas Supplied by the SPCAs and Their Branches
70(3)
Areas Supplied by the Long PCAs
73(6)
Peripapillary Choroid
79(3)
Circle of Haller and Zinn
82(2)
Submacular Choroid
84(1)
In Vivo Vascular Pattern of the Choriocapillaris Bed
85(4)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Pattern of Filling of the Choriocapillaris
86(3)
Watershed Zones in the PCA Vascular Bed
89(4)
Watershed Zones Between the Main PCAs
90(1)
Watershed Zones Between Short PCAs
90(1)
Watershed Zones Between the Short and Long PCAs
91(1)
Watershed Zones Between the PCAs and the Anterior Ciliary Arteries
91(1)
Watershed Zones Between the Choriocapillaris Lobules
92(1)
Watershed Zones Between the Vortex Veins
92(1)
References
93(6)
5 Blood Supply of the Optic Nerve Head
99(12)
Anatomy of the Optic Nerve Head
99(4)
The Surface Nerve Fiber Layer
99(1)
The Prelaminar Region
99(2)
The Lamina Cribrosa Region
101(1)
The Retrolaminar Region
102(1)
Blood Supply of the Optic Nerve Head
103(4)
Arterial Supply of the ONH
103(3)
Venous Drainage of the Optic Nerve Head
106(1)
Angioarchitecture of the Optic Nerve Head
107(1)
Controversies on the Blood Supply of the ONH
108(1)
Conclusion
108(1)
References
108(3)
6 Blood Supply of the Anterior Segment
111(32)
Anterior Ciliary Arteries
111(3)
Direction of Blood Flow in the ACAS
113(1)
Long Posterior Ciliary Arteries
114(7)
Terminology of PCAs and Its Implications
114(3)
Temporal Long PCA Supply to the Choroid
117(4)
Arterial Blood Supply of the Anterior Segment of the Eye
121(1)
Arterial Circles in the Anterior Segment
121(1)
Blood Supply of the Sclera, Episclera, and Conjunctiva
122(2)
Blood Supply of the Limbus
123(1)
Blood Supply of the Iris
123(1)
Normal Iris Vascular Pattern on Fluorescein Angiography
124(11)
Normal Human Iris Vascular Pattern on Fluorescein Angiography
124(9)
Normal Subhuman Primate Iris Vascular Pattern on Fluorescein Angiography
133(2)
Blood Supply of the Ciliary Body
135(1)
Blood Supply of Ciliary Processes
136(1)
Venous Drainage from the Ciliary Processes
137(1)
Vasculature of the Pars Plana Region
137(1)
References
137(6)
7 The Orbital Veins
143(10)
Central Retinal Vein
144(5)
Vortex Veins
149(2)
Chorio-vaginal Vein
149(1)
Choroidopial Veins
150(1)
Retinociliary Vein
150(1)
Venous Drainage of the Anterior Segment of the Eye
151(1)
Venous Drainage of the Ciliary Body
151(1)
Anterior Ciliary Venous System
151(1)
Posterior Ciliary Venous System
151(1)
Aqueous Veins
151(1)
References
151(2)
8 The Retinal Capillaries
153(12)
Radial Peripapillary Retinal Capillaries
157(4)
Pericytes
161(1)
References
162(3)
9 The Blood-Retinal Barrier
165(8)
Inner Blood-Retinal Barrier
165(1)
Role of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) in BRB
166(1)
Outer Blood-Retinal Barrier
166(1)
Polarity of the Outer and Inner BRBs
167(1)
Functions of the BRB
167(2)
Corticosteroid Therapy and the BRB
169(1)
Mechanisms by Which Corticosteroids Block Blood-Ocular Barrier Breakdown
169(1)
Acetazolamide Therapy in BRB
169(1)
References
169(4)
10 Retinal and Choroidal Blood Flow
173(20)
Pathophysiology of Factors Influencing the Retinal and Choroidal Blood Flow
173(1)
Resistance to Blood Flow
173(6)
The State and Caliber of the Vessels Feeding the Retinal and Choroidal Circulation
173(3)
Breakdown of Blood Flow Autoregulation
176(3)
Arterial Blood Pressure
179(3)
Arterial Hypertension
179(2)
Arterial Hypotension
181(1)
Intraocular Pressure
182(2)
References
184(9)
11 Retinal Survival Time and Visual Outcome in Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
193(30)
Experimental Studies
193(7)
My First Experimental Study in Young, Healthy Rhesus Monkeys
195(1)
My Second Experimental Study in Old, Atherosclerotic, and Hypertensive Rhesus Monkeys
195(5)
Residual Retinal Circulation in CRAO
200(6)
Mechanisms of Filling of Retinal Circulation Soon After CRAO
203(2)
Mechanisms of Filling of Retinal Circulation Days and Weeks After CRAO
205(1)
Is It Possible to Obtain a Considerable Recovery of Vision in Eyes with Even a Minimal Residual Retinal Circulation After CRAW
205(1)
Comparison of the Tolerance Time to Ischemia Between the Retina and the Brain
206(4)
Metabolism of Ischemic Neurons in the Brain
207(1)
Metabolism of Ischemic Neurons in the Retina
207(1)
Factors Responsible for Much Longer Tolerance Time to Ischemia by the Retina Than the Brain
208(2)
Ischemic Preconditioning
210(1)
Brain Ischemic Preconditioning
210(1)
Retinal Ischemic Preconditioning
211(1)
Effect of Ischemia on Retinal Vasculature
211(1)
Factors Influencing the Visual Outcome in CRAO
212(4)
References
216(7)
Part II Clinical Sciences
12 Clinical Evaluation of Patients with Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders
223(16)
Initial Evaluation of All Patients with Visual Loss
223(3)
Detailed History
223(2)
Detailed Ophthalmic Evaluation
225(1)
Testing Visual Function in Patients with Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders
226(4)
Snellen Visual Acuity Testing
226(1)
Near Visual Acuity
227(1)
Amsler Grid Testing
227(1)
Visual Field Testing
228(2)
Complete Ophthalmic Evaluation
230(5)
Anterior Segment and Slit Lamp Biomicroscopic Evaluation
230(3)
Fundus Evaluation
233(1)
Optical Coherent Tomography Testing (OCT)
234(1)
Electrophysiologic Testing
234(1)
Ultrasound of the Orbit
235(1)
Systemic Evaluation
235(1)
Studies to Investigate Sources of Emboli
235(1)
Carotid Doppler/Angiographic Studies
235(1)
Echocardiography
235(1)
Hematologic Evaluation
235(1)
Temporal Artery Biopsy
236(1)
Follow-Up Evaluation of Eyes with Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders
236(1)
References
236(3)
13 Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
239(68)
Classification of CRAO
239(4)
Mechanism of Development of Transient NA-CRAO
240(3)
Conditions Associated with CRAO
243(12)
Hyperlipidemia and Atherosclerosis
243(4)
Carotid Artery Disease
247(2)
Diabetes Mellitus and Arterial Hypertension
249(1)
Cardiac Causes
249(1)
Following Invasive Cardiovascular Procedures
250(1)
Vasculitis and Chronic Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
250(1)
Thrombophilia
250(1)
Malignant Diseases
251(1)
Sickle Cell Disease
251(1)
Perioperative CRAO
251(1)
Following Orbital, Eye, or Head Injuries
252(1)
Following Facial or Retrobulbar Injections
253(1)
Following Hemodialysis
253(1)
Following Intravitreal Injection of Anti-vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) Therapy
253(1)
Following Peribulbar Anesthesia
254(1)
Following Intraocular Gas Expansion
254(1)
Fabry's Disease
255(1)
Miscellaneous Causes
255(1)
CRAO in Children
255(1)
CRAO in Young Persons
255(1)
Studies Based on Large Series of Conditions Associated with CRAO
256(2)
Investigations in Patients with CRAO
258(1)
Racial Differences in the Causes of Retinal Arterial Occlusion
258(1)
Demographic Characteristics of Various Types of CRAO
259(1)
Symptoms of CRAO
259(1)
Visual Function in CRAO
260(4)
Initial Visual Acuity
260(1)
Final Visual Acuity
260(1)
Visual Field Defects
260(1)
Initial Visual Field Defects
261(1)
Final Visual Field Defects
262(1)
Natural History of Visual Outcome in CRAO
263(1)
Conclusions on Visual Outcome
264(1)
Misconceptions About Visual Outcome in CRAO
264(1)
Factors Which Influence the Visual Outcome in CRAO
265(6)
Anterior Segment of the Eye
271(1)
Ophthalmoscopic Findings in CRAO
271(7)
Retinal Changes
271(1)
Retinal Vascular Changes
272(1)
Optic Disc Changes
273(1)
Cilioretinal Optic Disc Collaterals in CRAO
274(1)
Optic Disc Neovascularization
275(1)
Emboli Seen in the Retinal Arteries
276(2)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings in CRAO
278(2)
CRAO and Neovascular Glaucoma
280(1)
Combined Central Retinal Vein Occlusion and CRAO
281(1)
Management of CRAO
282(7)
Therapeutic Considerations for CRAO
282(1)
Treatment of CRAO Due to GCA
283(1)
Treatments of Non-arteritic CRAO
284(1)
No Treatment
284(1)
Conventional Advocated Treatments
284(1)
Other Advocated Treatments
284(5)
Prevalent Misconceptions on CRAO
289(1)
References
289(18)
14 Hemicentral Retinal Artery Occlusion
307(6)
Conditions Associated with Hemi-CRAO
308(1)
Symptoms of Hemi-CRAO
308(1)
Demographic Features
309(1)
Visual Function in Hemi-CRAO
309(1)
Visual Acuity
309(1)
Visual Field Defects
310(1)
Anterior Segment of the Eye
311(1)
Ophthalmoscopic Findings
311(1)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
311(1)
Management
312(1)
Investigations in Patients with Hemi-CRAO
312(1)
References
312(1)
15 Branch Retinal Arteriolar Occlusion
313(28)
Classification of BRAO
313(1)
Susac's Syndrome
313(6)
First Patient
314(2)
Second Patient
316(3)
Conditions Associated with BRAO
319(2)
Hyperlipidemia and Atherosclerosis
319(1)
Carotid Artery Disease
319(1)
Cardiac Causes
319(1)
Diabetes Mellitus and Arterial Hypertension
319(1)
Following Invasive Cardiovascular Procedures
319(1)
Vasculitis and Chronic Systemic Autoimmune Diseases
320(1)
Thrombophilia
320(1)
Malignant Diseases
320(1)
Perioperative BRAO
320(1)
Following Facial or Retrobulbar Injections
320(1)
Following Intravitreal Injection of Anti-vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) Therapy
320(1)
Miscellaneous Causes
320(1)
BRAO in Children
321(1)
BRAO in Young Persons
321(3)
Investigations in Patients with BRAO
324(1)
Racial Differences in the Causes of Retinal Arterial Occlusion
325(1)
Demographic Characteristics of BRAO
325(1)
Symptoms of BRAO
326(1)
Visual Function in BRAO
326(2)
Visual Acuity
326(1)
Visual Fields Defects
327(1)
Anterior Segment of the Eye
328(1)
Fundus Changes in BRAO
329(4)
Permanent BRAO
329(1)
Retinal Changes
329(2)
Arteriolar Changes
331(1)
Optic Disc Changes
332(1)
Transient BRAO
332(1)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings in BRAO
333(1)
Permanent BRAO
333(1)
Transient BRAO
334(1)
Management of BRAO
334(2)
Transient BRAO
336(1)
References
336(5)
16 Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
341(24)
Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
342(1)
Classification of Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
342(13)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Alone
342(1)
Arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Giant Cell Arteritis
342(2)
Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Central Retinal Vein Occlusion or Hemi-central Retinal Vein Occlusion
344(11)
Conditions Associated with Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
355(1)
Arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Giant Cell Arteritis
355(1)
Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Central Retinal Vein Occlusion or Hemi-central Retinal Vein Occlusion
355(1)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
355(1)
Investigations in Patients with Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
356(1)
Clinical Findings
357(1)
Demographic Characteristics of Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
357(1)
Arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Giant Cell Arteritis
357(1)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Alone
357(1)
Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Central Retinal Vein Occlusion or Hemi-central Retinal Vein Occlusion
357(1)
Symptoms of Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
358(1)
Visual Function in Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
358(1)
Visual Acuity and Visual Fields
358(1)
Anterior Segment of the Eye
359(1)
Ophthalmoscopic Findings in Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
359(1)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Alone
359(1)
Arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
359(1)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Central/Hemi-central Retinal Vein Occlusion
359(1)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings in Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
359(1)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Alone
359(1)
Arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Giant Cell Arteritis
359(1)
Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Central/Hemi-central Retinal Vein Occlusion
360(1)
Management of Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
360(1)
Arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Giant Cell Arteritis
360(1)
Non-arteritic Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Alone
361(1)
Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion Associated with Central/Hemi-central Retinal Vein Occlusion
361(1)
References
361(4)
17 Cotton-Wool Spots (Inner Retinal Ischemic Spots)
365(14)
Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of Cotton-Wool Spots
365(5)
Cytoid Bodies
367(3)
Conclusion
370(1)
Clinical Features of Cotton-Wool Spots
370(5)
Ophthalmoscopic Findings
370(2)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
372(2)
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Studies
374(1)
Investigations in Patients with Cotton-Wool Spots
375(1)
Management of Patients with Cotton-Wool Spots
375(1)
Terminology
375(1)
References
376(3)
18 Posterior Ciliary Artery Occlusion and Choroidal Ischemia
379(50)
Experimental a PCA Occlusion Studies
379(1)
In Vivo Circulation and Distribution Pattern of the PCAs and Their Branches
379(1)
Choroidal Ischemic Lesions Produced by Occlusion of the PCAs
380(16)
Ophthalmoscopic Findings
380(3)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
383(6)
Histopathological Findings
389(2)
Light and Electron Microscopy and Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) Tracer Study
391(3)
Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) Tracer Technique Findings
394(1)
Conclusions on PCA Occlusion
394(2)
Correlation of Site of Lesion with Choroidal Ischemia
396(1)
Optic Nerve Head Ischemic Lesions Produced by the PCA Occlusion
396(4)
Ophthalmoscopic and Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
397(2)
Histopathological Studies
399(1)
Conclusion
400(1)
Simultaneous Occlusion of PCAs and Vortex Veins
400(2)
Causes of Occlusion of the PCA and Choroidal Ischemia
402(4)
Systemic Diseases
402(3)
Local Vascular Disorders
405(1)
Investigations in Patients with PCA Occlusion or Choroidal Ischemia
406(1)
Clinical Features and Types of Acute Choroidal Ischemic Lesions
406(8)
Case 1
407(1)
Case 2
408(1)
Acute Choroidal Ischemic Lesions Seen Clinically
409(5)
Macular Lesions Secondary to Choroidal Vascular Disorders
414(9)
Acute Choroidal Ischemic Lesions
414(1)
Chronic Choroidal Ischemic Disorders
415(3)
Macular Lesions Associated with Subretinal Choroidal Neovascularization
418(1)
Macular Lesions Associated with Subretinal Detachment
419(2)
Miscellaneous Conditions Associated with Macular Lesions
421(2)
References
423(6)
19 Ischemic Optic Neuropathies
429(48)
Terminology
429(1)
Classification of Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
429(1)
Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (AION)
429(1)
Posterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (PION)
430(1)
Blood Supply of the Optic Nerve
430(1)
Factors Influencing the Blood Flow
430(1)
Relative Frequency of Various Types of Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
430(1)
Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
430(1)
Posterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
431(1)
Investigations in Patients with Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
431(2)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiography
431(1)
Hematologic Evaluation
432(1)
Temporal Artery Biopsy
432(1)
Systemic Evaluation
432(1)
Non-arteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (NA-AION)
433(4)
Pathogenesis
433(1)
Predisposing Risk Factors
433(1)
Time of Onset of NA-AION
434(1)
Nocturnal Arterial Hypotension
434(3)
NA-AION and Ischemic Cerebral Stroke
437(1)
Clinical Features of Classical NA-AION
437(9)
Incidence of NA-AION
437(1)
Age, Gender, and Racial Features
437(1)
Symptoms
437(1)
Visual Acuity
438(1)
Visual Fields
438(1)
Natural History of Visual Outcome in NA-AION
439(1)
Anterior Segment of the Eye
439(1)
Optic Disc Changes
440(3)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
443(1)
Bilateral NA-AION
444(1)
Recurrence of NA-AION in the Same Eye
445(1)
NA-AION in Diabetics Versus Nondiabetics
446(1)
Incipient NA-AION
446(1)
NA-AION and Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) Inhibitors
446(2)
Amiodarone and NA-AION
447(1)
Familial NA-AION
447(1)
Post-hemorrhagic Amaurosis
448(1)
Management of NA-AION
448(7)
Optic Nerve Sheath Decompression
448(1)
Aspirin
448(1)
Systemic Corticosteroid Therapy
448(4)
Intravitreal Triamcinolone Acetonide for Treatment of NA-AION
452(1)
Intravitreal Bevacizumab for Treatment of NA-AION
453(1)
Miscellaneous Other Advocated Treatments
454(1)
Reduction of Risk Factors
454(1)
Misconceptions About NA-AION
454(1)
Arteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy (A-AION)
455(11)
Pathogenesis
455(1)
Clinical Features of A-AION
455(4)
Laboratory Investigations
459(2)
Management of A-AION
461(1)
Differentiation of A-AION from NA-AION
462(1)
Steroid Therapy in GCA to Prevent Blindness
462(3)
Visual Prognosis with Adequate Corticosteroid Therapy
465(1)
Misconceptions About Preventing Visual Loss in A-AION and GCA
465(1)
Posterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
466(5)
Classification of PION
466(1)
Pathogenesis
466(2)
Clinical Features of PION
468(2)
Management of PION
470(1)
References
471(6)
20 Anterior Segment Ischemia
477(32)
Clinical Study of Anterior Segment Ischemia After Strabismus Surgery
477(1)
Experimental and Clinical Studies
478(12)
Anterior Segment Ischemia After Recession of Various Recti
478(6)
Long Posterior Ciliary Artery Occlusion
484(1)
Vortex Vein Occlusion
485(1)
Clinical Study of Anterior Segment Ischemia After Strabismus Surgery
485(5)
Physiological Anatomy of the Blood Supply of the Iris
490(2)
Role of the Major Arterial Circle of the Iris in Establishing Collateral Circulation
491(1)
Signs of Anterior Segment Ischemia
492(1)
Investigations in Anterior Segment Ischemia
493(1)
Management of Anterior Segment Ischemia
494(10)
References
504(5)
21 Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
509(30)
Causes of Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
509(1)
Pathophysiology of Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
510(4)
Ischemia of the Anterior Segment
510(1)
Ischemia of the Posterior Segment
511(3)
My Studies on Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
514(6)
OIS Case 1
515(1)
OIS Case 2
516(3)
OIS Case 3
519(1)
Signs and Symptoms of OIS
520(2)
Ocular Ischemic Syndrome and "Venous Stasis Retinopathy"
522(9)
Retinal Hypoxia or Ischemia as a Cause of Retinal Vascular Changes
530(1)
Treatment
531(2)
Conclusions About Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
533(1)
Terminology
533(1)
References
534(5)
22 Ophthalmic Manifestations of Carotid Artery Disease
539(10)
Pathophysiological Mechanisms
539(1)
Embolic Disorders
539(3)
Retinal Emboli
539(1)
Visual Loss Caused by Retinal Emboli in CRAO
540(1)
Visual Loss Caused by Retinal Emboli in BRAO
540(1)
Visual Loss Caused by Emboli in the Optic Nerve Head
541(1)
Choroidal Ischemia Following Embolism into the Choroidal Vascular Bed
541(1)
Hemodynamic Disturbance
542(5)
Role of Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine) Released in Carotid Artery Disease
543(3)
Central Retinal Artery Occlusion (CRAG)
546(1)
References
547(2)
23 Arterial Hypertension and the Eye
549(72)
Anatomic and Physiologic Properties of the Retinal, Choroidal, and Optic Nerve Head Vascular Beds
550(2)
Ocular Blood Flow
550(1)
Blood-Ocular Barrier
551(1)
Pathophysiology of Malignant Arterial Hypertension
552(1)
Terminology Used for Hypertensive Fundus Changes
552(1)
Experimental Studies on Fundus Changes in Malignant Arterial Hypertension
553(1)
Hypertensive Choroidopathy
554(17)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Abnormalities of the Choroidal Vascular Bed
555(1)
Hypertensive Choroidopathy Lesions
555(13)
Pathologic Study
568(1)
Pathogenesis of Hypertensive Choroidopathy
569(2)
Hypertensive Choroidopathy and Retinopathy
571(1)
Conclusion
571(1)
Hypertensive Optic Neuropathy
571(7)
Optic Disc Changes
572(3)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
575(1)
Histopathological Studies
575(1)
Pathogenesis of Optic Disc Edema in Malignant Hypertension
576(1)
Dangers of Precipitous Reduction of BP on Hypertensive Optic Neuropathy
577(1)
Conclusion
578(1)
Hypertensive Retinopathy
578(1)
Retinal Vascular Lesions
578(5)
Retinal Arteriolar Hypertensive Changes
578(1)
Changes in Main Retinal Arterioles
579(4)
Conclusions
583(1)
Focal Intraretinal Periarteriolar Transudates in Hypertensive Retinopathy
583(6)
Focal Intraretinal Periarteriolar Transudates (FIPTs)
584(1)
Ophthalmoscopic and Fluorescein Angiographic Features of FIPTs
584(3)
Pathogenesis of FIPTs
587(2)
Differential Diagnosis Between FIPTs and Cotton-Wool Spots
589(1)
Conclusion
589(1)
Cotton-Wool Spots (Inner Retinal Ischemic Spots) in Hypertensive Retinopathy
589(8)
Location of CWS
590(1)
Shape and Size of the CWSs
590(1)
Life Cycle of CWSs
590(1)
Retinal Nerve Fiber Loss
591(1)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
591(2)
Pathologic Findings
593(1)
Pathogenesis
594(1)
Terminology
595(1)
Differential Diagnosis Between FIPTs and CWSs
595(2)
Conclusions
597(1)
Retinal Hemorrhages in Hypertensive Retinopathy
597(3)
Retinal Venous Changes
599(1)
Retinal Lipid Deposits in Hypertensive Retinopathy
600(2)
Lipid Deposits (or So-Called Hard Exudates) in the Retina
600(2)
Pathogenesis of Retinal Lipid Deposits in Hypertensive Retinopathy
602(2)
Lipid Deposits Exudative in Nature
603(1)
Lipid Deposits a By-Product of Degenerated Retinal Cells
603(1)
Terminology
604(1)
Macular Lesions in Hypertensive Retinopathy
604(2)
Macular Retinal Edema
604(1)
Macular Serous Retinal Detachment
605(1)
Macular RPE Changes
605(1)
Macular Retinal Lipid Deposits
605(1)
Other Macular Retinal Lesions
605(1)
Pathogenesis of Macular Edema and Cystoid Macular Edema (CME)
605(1)
Retinal Edema in Hypertensive Retinopathy
606(1)
Hypertensive Fundus Changes in Human Malignant Arterial Hypertension
606(8)
Case Report
606(1)
Classification of Hypertensive Fundus Changes and Their Order of Appearance
607(6)
Order of Appearance of the Various Early, Major Fundus Lesions of Malignant Arterial Hypertension
613(1)
References
614(7)
24 Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
621(124)
Classification of CRVO
621(2)
Conditions Associated with CRVO
623(7)
Systemic Conditions
623(5)
Hematologic Abnormalities
628(2)
Association of Ocular Hypertension and Glaucoma with CRVO and Hemi-CRVO (HCRVO)
630(4)
The Association of Ocular Hypotension with CRVO
631(2)
Pathogenesis of the Development of Ocular Hypotension in CRVO
633(1)
Clinical Importance of the Findings of My Study
633(1)
Pathogenesis of CRVO
634(7)
Experimental Studies
634(1)
Clinical Studies
635(4)
Site of Occlusion in Nonischemic CRVO
639(1)
Site of Occlusion in Ischemic CRVO
639(1)
Conversion of Nonischemic CRVO to Ischemic CRVO
640(1)
Conclusion
641(1)
Differentiation of Ischemic from Nonischemic CRVO
641(8)
Overall Order of Reliability of Various Tests
645(1)
Should Ocular Neovascularization Be Used as an Endpoint?
646(1)
Misconception that Fluorescein Fundus Angiography Is the Best Test to Differentiate Ischemic from Nonischemic CRVO and No Other Test Is Required
646(1)
Demographic Characteristics
647(1)
Seasonal Variations in the Onset of CRVO
647(2)
Conclusion
649(1)
Clinical Features
649(36)
Symptoms
649(1)
Visual Status in CRVO
650(5)
Anterior Segment Changes
655(1)
Vitreous
655(1)
Fundus Changes
655(1)
Retinal Venous Changes
656(3)
Retinal Hemorrhages
659(3)
Macular Changes
662(8)
Cotton-Wool Spots
670(4)
Retinal Arterial Attenuation and Sheathing
674(1)
Optic Disc Changes
674(1)
Cup/Disc Ratio in CRVO
675(1)
Optic Disc Retinociliary Collaterals
675(2)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
677(4)
Resolution of Retinopathy
681(2)
Morphologic Sequelae of a Resolved CRVO
683(2)
Course
685(1)
Complications of CRVO
685(1)
Central Retinal Vein Occlusion Associated with Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
685(13)
Visual Acuity
687(1)
Visual Fields
687(1)
Anterior Segment
688(1)
Vitreous
688(1)
Fundus Changes
688(2)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiography Findings
690(3)
Resolution of Retinopathy
693(1)
Pathogenesis of Simultaneous Development of Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion in Eyes with CRVO and Hemi-CRVO
693(5)
Development of Ocular Neovascularization in CRVO
698(2)
Ocular Neovascularization in Eyes with Ischemic CRVO
698(2)
Ocular Neovascularization in Eyes with Nonischemic CRVO
700(1)
Conclusions
700(1)
Management of CRVO
700(1)
Nonischemic CRVO
701(1)
Ischemic CRVO
701(1)
Treatments for CRVO
701(1)
Medical Treatments
701(19)
Intravitreal Anti-vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) Agents
701(3)
Intravitreal Corticosteroid Therapy
704(1)
Anticoagulants or Antiplatelet Aggregation Agents Therapy
705(3)
Ocular Hypotensive Therapy
708(1)
Hemodilution
709(1)
Verteporfin Photodynamic Therapy
710(1)
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy
710(1)
Plasmapheresis
711(1)
Intravitreal Tissue Plasminogen Activator
711(1)
Photocoagulation in CRVO
711(7)
My Management Regimen for Neovascular Glaucoma in Ischemic CRVO
718(2)
Invasive or Surgical Treatments
720(6)
Laser-Induced Chorioretinal Venous Anastomosis for Treatment of Nonischemic CRVO
720(2)
Vitrectomy with Branch Retinal Vein Cannulation and Infusion of t-PA
722(1)
Surgical Decompression of the Central Retinal Vein
723(1)
Optic Nerve Sheath Decompression
723(1)
Radial Optic Neurotomy
723(3)
Vitrectomy and Internal Limiting Membrane Peeling
726(1)
Investigations of CRVO Patients
726(1)
Misconceptions About CRVO
727(3)
References
730(15)
25 Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
745(26)
Pathogenesis of Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
745(2)
Clinical Features
747(16)
Demographic Characteristics
747(1)
Symptoms of Hemi-CRVO
747(1)
Area of the Retina Involved
747(1)
Associated Systemic Disorders
747(6)
Association of Ocular Hypertension and Glaucoma with Hemi-CRVO
753(1)
Natural History of Visual Outcome
753(2)
Anterior Segment Changes
755(8)
Differentiation of Ischemic from Nonischemic Hemi-CRVO
763(1)
Management of Hemi-CRVO
763(6)
Antiplatelet Aggregation Agents and Anticoagulants
763(3)
Photocoagulation
766(1)
Radial Optic Neurotomy
766(2)
Laser-Induced Chorioretinal Venous Anastomosis
768(1)
Recurrence of Hemi-CRVO
768(1)
References
769(2)
26 Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
771(52)
Classification of BRVO
771(1)
Conditions Associated with BRVO
771(11)
Systemic Conditions
772(7)
Hematologic Abnormalities
779(1)
Association of Ocular Hypotension, Glaucoma, and Ocular Hypertension with BRVO
780(1)
Retinal Arteriovenous Crossings
780(2)
Pathogenesis of BRVO
782(1)
Systemic Risk Factors
782(1)
Local Risk Factors
782(1)
Hematologic Risk Factors
783(1)
Site of Occlusion
783(1)
Conclusion
783(1)
Prevalence of BRVO
783(1)
Demographic Characteristics
784(3)
Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Demographic Characteristics of All Types of Retinal Vein Occlusion
784(3)
Seasonal Variations in the Onset of BRVO
787(1)
Clinical Features
787(7)
Symptoms
787(1)
Visual Status in BRVO
788(6)
Anterior Segment Changes
794(1)
Vitreous
794(1)
Fundus Changes
794(14)
Retinal Venous Changes
795(1)
Hemorrhages
796(2)
Macular Changes
798(3)
Cotton-Wool Spots
801(1)
Retinal Arterial Changes
802(1)
Retinal Collaterals
802(1)
Optic Disc Pallor
803(1)
Cup-Disc Ratio in BRVO
803(1)
Retinal Lipid Deposits
804(1)
Other Changes
805(1)
Fluorescein Fundus Angiographic Findings
805(1)
Resolution of Retinopathy
806(1)
Complications
807(1)
Management of BRVO
808(1)
Medical Treatments
809(2)
Intravitreal Anti-VEGF Therapy
809(1)
Intravitreal Corticosteroid Therapy
809(1)
Anticoagulants or Antiplatelet Aggregation Agent Therapy
810(1)
Isovolemic Hemodilution Therapy
810(1)
Intravitreal Tissue Plasminogen Activator
810(1)
Photocoagulation in BRVO
811(2)
Grid Pattern Laser Treatment for Macular Edema
811(1)
Photocoagulation for Ocular Neovascularization in BRVO
811(2)
Photocoagulation by Laser Types Other than Argon Laser in BRVO
813(1)
Surgical Treatments
813(1)
Arteriovenous Sheathotomy
813(1)
Vitrectomy
814(1)
References
814(9)
27 Vortex Vein Occlusion
823(16)
Ciliary Processes and Ciliary Body Findings
823(3)
Depth of Anterior Chamber Findings
826(1)
Intraocular Pressure Findings
826(1)
Iris Findings
827(1)
Lens Findings
828(1)
Corneal Findings
828(1)
Choroidal Circulation Findings
828(3)
Watershed Zones Between the Four Vortex Veins
831(1)
Fundus Findings
832(3)
Clinical Significance
835(1)
Conclusions
836(1)
References
837(2)
28 Amaurosis Fugax in Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders
839
Prevalence of Amaurosis Fugax
839(1)
Systemic Abnormalities
840(1)
Pathogeneses of Amaurosis Fugax in Various Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders
841(8)
Amaurosis Fugax in Giant Cell Arteritis with Visual Loss
841(2)
Amaurosis Fugax in Non-arteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
843(1)
Amaurosis Fugax in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion with Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion
844(1)
Amaurosis Fugax in Central and Hemicentral Retinal Vein Occlusion
845(1)
Amaurosis Fugax in Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
846(1)
Amaurosis Fugax in Non-arteritic Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
846(1)
Amaurosis Fugax in Branch Retinal Arteriole Occlusion
847(1)
Amaurosis Fugax in Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
848(1)
Conclusions
849(1)
References
849
Sohan Singh Hayreh, MD, MS, PhD, DSc, FRCS, FRCOphth, is a world-renowned clinical scientist with more than 55 years experience in basic, experimental, and clinical research in ophthalmology. In 1973 he was appointed Professor of Ophthalmology at the University of Iowa, Iowa City, and Director of the Ocular Vascular Clinic and Ocular Vascular Research Laboratory, and in 1999 became Professor Emeritus of Ophthalmology. His career dates back to the 1950s. In 1961 he was awarded the prestigious Beit Memorial Research Fellowship in Medical Sciences at the Institute of Ophthalmology, University of London. In subsequent decades Professor Hayreh made many seminal observations in the field and often challenged conventional thinking and dogmas. He has received numerous international honors and awards and has delivered several prestigious honorary lectures, including the Duke-Elder Lecture at the Royal College of Ophthalmologists, the William Mackenzie Lecture at the University of Glasgow, and the 2008 Green Lecture. He received the von Sallmann Prize for 1994 and the Arnall Patz Medal of the Macula Society in 2001. In 2002 Professor Hayreh was guest of honor at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Ophthalmology, from whom he received a Senior Achievement Award in the following year. Also in 2003 he received the Mildred Weisenfeld Award for Excellence in Ophthalmology from the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology. He continues to serve on the editorial boards of various leading journals, and has published over 400 papers in peer-reviewed journals and more than 40 book chapters.