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1 | (292) |
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1 Introduction to organic electronics |
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3 | (28) |
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1.1 What is an organic semiconductor? |
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4 | (4) |
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1.2 The differences between organic and inorganic semiconductors |
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8 | (8) |
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1.3 70 years of advances in organic electronics |
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16 | (5) |
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1.4 Aligning on language: a few useful definitions |
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21 | (3) |
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1.5 The myths of organic electronics |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (3) |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (2) |
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2 Bulk and thin film organic crystal structures |
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31 | (43) |
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2.1 Molecular materials: definitions |
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32 | (1) |
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2.2 Lattices and crystal structure |
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32 | (3) |
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2.3 The reciprocal lattice, Miller indexes, and the Brillouin zone |
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35 | (1) |
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2.4 Crystal energy and cohesion |
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36 | (14) |
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37 | (3) |
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2.4.2 Covalent and metallic bonds |
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40 | (2) |
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2.4.3 Dipolar interactions and van der Waals bonds |
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42 | (1) |
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2.4.3.1 Interactions between fixed dipoles |
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43 | (1) |
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2.4.3.2 Dipole-induced dipole interactions |
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44 | (1) |
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2.4.3.3 Induced dipole-induced dipole (London) interactions |
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45 | (3) |
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48 | (1) |
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2.4.5 Comparison of bond strengths |
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49 | (1) |
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2.5 Equilibrium crystal structures |
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50 | (5) |
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2.6 Molecular layer structures |
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55 | (12) |
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2.6.1 Epitaxial growth modes |
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55 | (3) |
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2.6.2 Van der Waals epitaxy and quasiepitaxy |
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58 | (4) |
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2.6.3 Modeling and growth of ordered layers |
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62 | (4) |
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2.6.4 Dependence of strain on molecular size and shape |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (2) |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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71 | (3) |
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3 Optical properties of organic semiconductors |
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74 | (97) |
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3.1 The electronic structure of molecules |
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75 | (1) |
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3.2 The Born-Oppenheimer approximation and the Franck-Condon principle |
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75 | (5) |
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3.3 Linear combination of atomic orbitals, hybridization, and the aufbau principle |
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80 | (7) |
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3.4 Improving accuracy: numerical models |
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87 | (4) |
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3.4.1 Ab initio approaches |
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88 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Semi-empirical approaches |
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89 | (2) |
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3.5 Transitions between states |
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91 | (12) |
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3.5.1 Fermi's Golden Rule |
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91 | (1) |
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3.5.2 Quantum mechanical selection rules |
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92 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Understanding molecular spectra |
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93 | (10) |
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103 | (26) |
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3.6.1 Transition probabilities, oscillator strength, and the energy gap law |
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104 | (6) |
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110 | (2) |
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3.6.3 Excimers and exciplexes |
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112 | (4) |
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3.6.4 Excited states in crystals |
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116 | (4) |
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3.6.5 Classification of excitons |
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120 | (2) |
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3.6.6 Charge transfer states |
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122 | (2) |
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3.6.7 Solvatochromism and dielectric effects |
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124 | (5) |
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129 | (17) |
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3.7.1 Spin-orbit coupling |
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130 | (3) |
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133 | (1) |
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3.7.3 Metal-ligand and ligand-centered interactions in organic-transition metal complexes |
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134 | (7) |
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3.7.4 Relative phosphorescent and fluorescent rates and efficiencies |
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141 | (2) |
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3.7.5 Delayed fluorescence |
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143 | (3) |
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146 | (8) |
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3.8.1 Near field radiationless energy transfer: FRET |
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147 | (4) |
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3.8.2 Energy transfer in the contact zone: Dexter transfer by electron exchange |
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151 | (2) |
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3.8.3 Radiative energy transfer |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (5) |
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3.10 Exciton recombination and annihilation |
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159 | (3) |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (3) |
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166 | (5) |
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4 Charge transport in organic semiconductors |
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171 | (122) |
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4.1 From energy levels to energy bands |
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172 | (8) |
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4.1.1 Tight binding method for calculating energy bands |
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173 | (6) |
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4.1.2 Experimental dispersion relationships |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (4) |
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184 | (20) |
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4.3.1 Hopping in the presence of dynamic disorder |
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187 | (2) |
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4.3.2 Hopping in the presence of static disorder |
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189 | (1) |
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4.3.2.1 Miller-Abrahams electron transfer |
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189 | (1) |
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4.3.2.2 Marcus electron transfer |
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190 | (5) |
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4.3.2.3 Charge mobility in organic semiconductors with static disorder: the effective medium approximation |
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195 | (4) |
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4.3.2.4 Beyond the Einstein relation and the EMA |
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199 | (5) |
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4.4 Conduction in organic thin films |
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204 | (24) |
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4.4.1 Ohmic conduction and doping |
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204 | (8) |
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4.4.2 Space charge limited conduction |
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212 | (1) |
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4.4.2.1 Trap-free SCL conduction |
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212 | (3) |
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4.4.2.2 SCL conduction in the presence of traps |
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215 | (4) |
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4.4.3 Measuring conductivity and mobility |
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219 | (1) |
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4.4.3.1 Time of flight mobility |
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220 | (3) |
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4.4.3.2 Dark injection space charge limited current |
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223 | (1) |
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4.4.3.3 Charge extraction by linearly increasing voltage |
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224 | (3) |
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4.4.3.4 Hall effect mobility |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (8) |
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4.5.1 Direct LUMO-HOMO recombination |
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229 | (1) |
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4.5.2 Recombination via mid-gap states |
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230 | (2) |
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4.5.3 Auger recombination |
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232 | (1) |
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4.5.4 Langevin recombination |
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232 | (2) |
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4.5.5 Long range charge diffusion in organic thin films |
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234 | (2) |
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4.6 Injection from contacts |
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236 | (12) |
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4.6.1 The ideal Schottky barrier |
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236 | (4) |
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4.6.2 Barrier lowering and tunneling at metal-organic junctions |
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240 | (3) |
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4.6.3 Metal-organic junctions in the presence of traps |
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243 | (5) |
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4.7 Organic semiconductor junctions |
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248 | (32) |
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4.7.1 Organic homojunctions |
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248 | (4) |
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4.7.2 Excitonic heterojunctions |
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252 | (1) |
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4.7.2.1 Excitonic HJ fundamentals |
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253 | (4) |
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4.7.2.2 Ideal diode equation for current transport in a trap-free excitonic HJ |
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257 | (9) |
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4.7.2.3 Current-voltage characteristics in the presence of traps |
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266 | (4) |
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4.7.3 Organic-inorganic heterojunctions |
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270 | (1) |
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4.7.3.1 Conduction in organic-inorganic heterojunctions |
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271 | (1) |
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4.7.3.2 Current-voltage characteristics of an ideal OI-HJ |
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272 | (1) |
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4.7.3.3 Current-voltage characteristics of an OI-HJ in the presence of interface traps |
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273 | (6) |
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4.7.4 Universal ideal diode behavior |
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279 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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281 | (1) |
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281 | (4) |
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285 | (8) |
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293 | (722) |
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5 Materials purity, growth, and patterning |
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295 | (72) |
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5.1 The organic semiconductor difference |
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296 | (1) |
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5.2 Effects of impurities on materials properties |
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297 | (2) |
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5.3 Materials purification |
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299 | (11) |
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299 | (4) |
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5.3.2 Thermal gradient sublimation |
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303 | (2) |
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5.3.3 Solution-based purification methods |
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305 | (3) |
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5.3.4 Ultracentrifugation |
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308 | (2) |
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5.4 Bulk crystal and thin film growth |
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310 | (23) |
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5.4.1 Bulk single crystal growth |
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310 | (6) |
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316 | (1) |
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5.4.2.1 Vacuum thermal evaporation |
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316 | (5) |
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5.4.2.2 Organic molecular beam deposition |
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321 | (3) |
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5.4.2.3 Organic vapor phase deposition |
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324 | (6) |
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5.4.2.4 Film deposition from liquid solution |
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330 | (3) |
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5.5 Post-growth control of structure |
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333 | (4) |
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334 | (1) |
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335 | (2) |
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337 | (18) |
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5.6.1 Shadow mask patterning |
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337 | (2) |
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5.6.2 Photolithographic patterning |
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339 | (2) |
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5.6.3 Laser induced thermal imaging |
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341 | (1) |
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5.6.4 Nanoimprinting and stamping |
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341 | (4) |
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345 | (2) |
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5.6.6 Organic vapor jet printing |
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347 | (5) |
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5.6.7 Other patterning techniques |
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352 | (3) |
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5.7 Roll-to-roll production of organic electronics |
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355 | (3) |
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358 | (2) |
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360 | (1) |
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361 | (1) |
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361 | (1) |
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362 | (5) |
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367 | (201) |
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368 | (5) |
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6.2 Design and characterization of electroluminescent devices |
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373 | (13) |
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373 | (1) |
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373 | (3) |
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6.2.3 Quantifying OLED performance |
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376 | (1) |
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6.2.3.1 Radiometry and photometry: color perception and efficiency in OLED displays |
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376 | (2) |
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378 | (3) |
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381 | (2) |
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6.2.4 Measuring OLED performance |
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383 | (3) |
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6.3 Electroluminescent processes |
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386 | (53) |
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387 | (6) |
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393 | (1) |
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6.3.2.1 Exciton diffusion and confinement in multilayer small molecule OLEDs |
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394 | (2) |
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6.3.2.2 Energy transfer and luminescent layer doping in fluorescent OLEDs |
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396 | (3) |
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6.3.2.3 Small molecule fluorescent dopants and hosts |
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399 | (4) |
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6.3.2.4 Fluorescent polymer OLEDs |
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403 | (4) |
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6.3.2.5 Materials for fluorescent polymer OLEDs |
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407 | (5) |
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6.3.3 Phosphorescent OLEDs (PHOLEDs) |
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412 | (1) |
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6.3.3.1 Small molecule PHOLED architectures |
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412 | (6) |
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418 | (3) |
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6.3.3.3 Triplet emitting complexes |
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421 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Thermally assisted delayed fluorescence |
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421 | (10) |
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6.3.5 Exciton annihilation and management in OLEDs |
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431 | (1) |
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6.3.5.1 Exciton annihilation, triplet fusion, and singlet fission in fluorescent OLEDs |
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432 | (3) |
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6.3.5.2 Reducing efficiency roll-off via triplet management |
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435 | (1) |
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6.3.5.3 Efficiency roll-off in PHOLEDs |
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436 | (3) |
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439 | (9) |
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6.4.1 Top emitting OLEDs for displays |
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442 | (4) |
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6.4.2 Full color displays and pixelation |
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446 | (2) |
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6.5 OLED lighting and lighting devices |
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448 | (24) |
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6.5.1 Multicolor blended EMLs |
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450 | (6) |
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6.5.2 Hybrid fluorescent/phosphorescent WOLEDs |
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456 | (3) |
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6.5.3 WOLEDs based on excimer emission |
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459 | (6) |
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6.5.4 WOLEDs employing TADF emission |
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465 | (1) |
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6.5.5 Stacked and striped phosphorescent WOLEDs |
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466 | (6) |
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472 | (30) |
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6.6.1 Theory of outcoupling |
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473 | (6) |
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6.6.2 Substrate mode outcoupling |
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479 | (3) |
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6.6.3 Waveguide mode outcoupling |
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482 | (9) |
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6.6.4 Surface plasmon polariton mode outcoupling |
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491 | (3) |
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6.6.5 Outcoupling via molecular alignment |
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494 | (7) |
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6.6.6 Summary and prospects |
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501 | (1) |
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6.7 Reliability of organic light emitters |
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502 | (33) |
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6.7.1 Quantifying OLED long term performance and reliability |
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502 | (4) |
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6.7.2 Degradation due to contacts and interfaces |
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506 | (3) |
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6.7.3 Degradation due to thermal effects and chemical decomposition |
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509 | (8) |
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6.7.4 Lifetime of blue PHOLEDs: energy-driven degradation |
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517 | (15) |
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6.7.5 OLED lifetime on flexible plastic substrates |
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532 | (3) |
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6.8 Organic semiconductor lasers |
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535 | (15) |
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6.8.1 Theory of lasing in optically pumped OSLs |
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540 | (3) |
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6.8.2 Distinguishing characteristics of OSLs |
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543 | (5) |
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6.8.3 Achieving electrically pumped OSLs |
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548 | (2) |
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550 | (1) |
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551 | (1) |
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552 | (3) |
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555 | (13) |
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7 Organic light detectors |
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568 | (235) |
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7.1 Operating principles of organic photodetectors |
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569 | (29) |
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7.1.1 Photoconductivity and photoconductors |
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569 | (1) |
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7.1.1.1 General considerations |
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569 | (1) |
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7.1.1.2 Gain and bandwidth |
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570 | (1) |
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7.1.1.3 Photogeneration in excitonic photoconductors |
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571 | (2) |
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7.1.1.4 Quantum efficiency and responsivity |
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573 | (1) |
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7.1.1.5 Noise, detectivity, and dynamic range |
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574 | (2) |
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7.1.2 Photodiodes and solar cells |
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576 | (2) |
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7.1.2.1 Photodiode and solar cell architectures and energetics |
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578 | (4) |
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7.1.2.2 j--V characteristics in the dark and under illumination |
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582 | (2) |
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7.1.2.3 Active region morphologies |
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584 | (2) |
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586 | (2) |
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7.1.2.5 Noise and dynamic range |
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588 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Comparison of photoconductors and photodiodes |
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588 | (1) |
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7.1.4 Modeling efficiency: optical and charge generation in OPDs and OPVs |
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588 | (6) |
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7.1.5 Modeling efficiency: dependence on film morphology |
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594 | (4) |
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7.2 Organic photoconductors and photodiodes: properties and examples |
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598 | (26) |
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598 | (5) |
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603 | (1) |
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7.2.2.1 Photodiode materials |
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603 | (5) |
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7.2.2.2 High bandwidth OPDs |
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608 | (2) |
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7.2.2.3 OPDs based on nanotubes and quantum dots |
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610 | (5) |
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7.2.2.4 Photodiode applications |
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615 | (9) |
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624 | (23) |
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626 | (4) |
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7.3.2 Thermodynamic limits to OPV efficiency |
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630 | (8) |
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7.3.3 Measuring solar cell efficiency |
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638 | (9) |
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7.4 Architectures, morphologies, and materials for OPVs |
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647 | (78) |
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7.4.1 Architectural elements of high performance OPVs |
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650 | (1) |
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650 | (3) |
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7.4.1.2 Active regions: cascade and ternary blend OPVs |
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653 | (14) |
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7.4.1.3 Exciton blocking layers |
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667 | (7) |
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7.4.2 OPV transparency and flexibility, and the role of contacts |
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674 | (9) |
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7.4.3 Bulk and mixed heterojunction morphologies |
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683 | (1) |
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7.4.3.1 Dependence of efficiency on morphology: theoretical perspectives |
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683 | (5) |
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7.4.3.2 Optimizing morphology during deposition and processing |
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688 | (9) |
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7.4.4 Materials optimized for use in OPVs |
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697 | (2) |
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699 | (12) |
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7.4.4.2 Non-fullerene acceptors |
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711 | (13) |
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7.4.4.3 Materials used in non-fullerene ternary OPVs |
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724 | (1) |
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725 | (13) |
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7.5.1 Design principles of optimized multijunction OPVs |
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726 | (3) |
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7.5.2 Charge recombination zones |
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729 | (2) |
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7.5.3 Example multijunction OPV structures and performances |
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731 | (7) |
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738 | (5) |
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7.6.1 Fully organic singlet fission OPVs |
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741 | (1) |
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7.6.2 Hybrid organic/QD singlet fission OPVs |
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742 | (1) |
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7.7 Light trapping and concentration |
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743 | (14) |
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7.7.1 Light trapping using reflective apertures |
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745 | (2) |
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747 | (2) |
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7.7.3 Nanoscale dielectric scatterers |
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749 | (1) |
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7.7.4 Scattering via gratings and textured surfaces |
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750 | (4) |
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7.7.5 Luminescent solar concentrators |
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754 | (3) |
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7.8 Reliability of organic photovoltaics |
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757 | (20) |
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7.8.1 Materials and morphological degradation |
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765 | (4) |
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7.8.2 Contacts and other interfaces |
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769 | (4) |
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773 | (4) |
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7.9 Scaling up to modules |
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777 | (7) |
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784 | (1) |
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785 | (1) |
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786 | (2) |
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788 | (15) |
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8 Organic thin film transistors |
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803 | (115) |
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8.1 Thin film transistor basics |
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804 | (2) |
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8.2 A brief history of OTFTs |
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806 | (3) |
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8.3 Operating principles and definitions |
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809 | (21) |
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8.3.1 Metal-insulator-semiconductor contacts |
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810 | (3) |
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813 | (8) |
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821 | (5) |
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826 | (4) |
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8.4 Alternative thin film transistor architectures |
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830 | (14) |
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830 | (3) |
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8.4.2 Doped channel OTFTs |
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833 | (2) |
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8.4.3 Vertical organic field effect transistors |
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835 | (4) |
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8.4.4 Complementary logic and ambipolar transistors |
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839 | (4) |
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8.4.5 Split gate transistors |
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843 | (1) |
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844 | (6) |
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850 | (19) |
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8.6.1 Self-assembled monolayers |
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854 | (3) |
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8.6.2 Small molecules for p-channel transistors |
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857 | (4) |
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8.6.3 Small molecules for n-channel transistors |
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861 | (3) |
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8.6.4 Polymers for p-channel transistors |
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864 | (1) |
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8.6.5 Polymers for n-channel transistors |
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864 | (2) |
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8.6.6 Materials for ambipolar transistors |
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866 | (3) |
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8.7 Material deposition and transistor patterning |
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869 | (9) |
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8.7.1 Molecular alignment via dip coating and associated techniques |
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869 | (3) |
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8.7.2 Molecular orientation on surface-modified substrates |
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872 | (3) |
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8.7.3 Direct printing of OTFT contacts |
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875 | (3) |
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8.8 Reliability of organic transistors and circuits |
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878 | (12) |
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8.8.1 Tracking and understanding threshold voltage shifts |
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879 | (3) |
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8.8.2 Effects of water on transistor stability |
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|
882 | (5) |
|
8.8.3 Other sources of instabilities in OTFT performance |
|
|
887 | (3) |
|
8.8.4 Achieving reliable OTFTs |
|
|
890 | (1) |
|
8.9 Organic transistor circuit applications |
|
|
890 | (15) |
|
8.9.1 Flexible display backplanes |
|
|
892 | (1) |
|
8.9.2 Sensors and sensor arrays |
|
|
893 | (6) |
|
8.9.3 Ultrathin, stretchable, and biocompatible electronics |
|
|
899 | (6) |
|
|
905 | (1) |
|
|
906 | (1) |
|
|
906 | (2) |
|
|
908 | (10) |
|
9 Expect the unexpected: more possibilities for organic electronics |
|
|
918 | (97) |
|
9.1 Light emitting electrochemical cells |
|
|
919 | (4) |
|
9.2 Microcavity organic exciton polaritons |
|
|
923 | (18) |
|
|
925 | (3) |
|
9.2.2 Optically pumped organic polaritons |
|
|
928 | (3) |
|
9.2.3 Hybrid organic/inorganic semiconductor polaritons |
|
|
931 | (1) |
|
9.2.4 Polariton lasers and Bose-Einstein condensation |
|
|
932 | (5) |
|
9.2.5 Ultrastrong coupling and polaritonic OLEDs and OPDs |
|
|
937 | (4) |
|
9.3 Organic thermoelectricity |
|
|
941 | (9) |
|
9.3.1 Organic thermoelectric module architectures |
|
|
944 | (3) |
|
|
947 | (3) |
|
|
950 | (23) |
|
|
952 | (1) |
|
|
953 | (2) |
|
9.4.3 Reversible resistive memories |
|
|
955 | (3) |
|
9.4.4 Ferroelectric capacitors and diodes |
|
|
958 | (3) |
|
9.4.5 Transistor memories |
|
|
961 | (2) |
|
9.4.5.1 Interface charge trapping |
|
|
963 | (3) |
|
9.4.5.2 Floating gate and metal NP charge storage |
|
|
966 | (3) |
|
9.4.5.3 Ferroelectric memory transistors |
|
|
969 | (4) |
|
9.5 Organic/two-dimensional semiconductor heterojunctions |
|
|
973 | (15) |
|
9.5.1 Electronic characteristics of transition metal dichalcogenides |
|
|
974 | (6) |
|
9.5.2 Charge transfer at organic/2D semiconductor heterojunctions |
|
|
980 | (2) |
|
9.5.3 Two-dimensional organic/inorganic heterojunction devices |
|
|
982 | (6) |
|
9.6 Single molecule electronics |
|
|
988 | (19) |
|
9.6.1 Fabricating and characterizing single molecule devices |
|
|
994 | (7) |
|
9.6.2 Unique properties of single molecule devices |
|
|
1001 | (6) |
|
|
1007 | (1) |
|
|
1007 | (1) |
|
|
1008 | (1) |
|
|
1009 | (6) |
|
|
1015 | (22) |
|
Appendix A Glossary of frequently used and common abbreviations |
|
|
1016 | (5) |
|
Appendix B Identification of chemical names |
|
|
1021 | (10) |
|
Appendix C Measuring ionization potentials and electron affinities |
|
|
1031 | (6) |
General index |
|
1037 | (8) |
Chemical name index |
|
1045 | |