| Preface |
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xv | |
| Acknowledgments |
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xvii | |
| About the Authors |
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xxi | |
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Introduction to Paleobotany, How Fossil Plants are Formed |
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1 | (42) |
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1 | (1) |
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The Objectives of Paleobotany |
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2 | (6) |
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Reconstructing the Plants |
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2 | (1) |
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Evolution of Plant Groups |
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3 | (1) |
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Form and Function in Fossil Plants |
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4 | (1) |
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Biostratigraphy and Correlation |
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4 | (1) |
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Paleoecology: Plants in Their Environment |
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5 | (1) |
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Determining Paleoclimate from Fossil Plants |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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Preservation: How Plant Fossils are Formed and Preserved |
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8 | (1) |
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Depositional Environments of Fossil Plants |
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8 | (22) |
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10 | (3) |
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13 | (3) |
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Biofilms and Plant Fossil Preservation |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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Maceration and Degagement |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (2) |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (2) |
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27 | (2) |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (1) |
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30 | (4) |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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34 | (4) |
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Geochronology and Biostratigraphy |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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Systematics and Classification |
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40 | (2) |
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Nomenclature of Fossil Plants |
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41 | (1) |
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Classification of Organisms |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (28) |
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The Origin of Life on Earth |
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44 | (3) |
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Origin of Life: Theory and Biology |
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46 | (1) |
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Earliest Record of Life on Earth |
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47 | (7) |
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47 | (1) |
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Earliest Records of Life: Paleoarchean (3.6-3.2 Ga) |
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47 | (1) |
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47 | (2) |
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Microfossils (Body Fossils) |
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49 | (1) |
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Isua Greenstone Belt, Greenland |
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49 | (1) |
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Warrawoona Group, Australia |
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49 | (2) |
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Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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Mesoarchean-Neoarchean Life |
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54 | (1) |
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Conclusions: Archean Life |
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55 | (2) |
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Oxygenation of the Earth (2.45-2.2 Ga) |
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57 | (2) |
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59 | (11) |
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59 | (2) |
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61 | (3) |
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64 | (1) |
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Earliest Multicellular Life |
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64 | (1) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (3) |
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70 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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Fungi, Bacteria, and Lichens |
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71 | (50) |
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71 | (41) |
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73 | (4) |
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77 | (1) |
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77 | (5) |
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82 | (2) |
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84 | (6) |
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90 | (3) |
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93 | (4) |
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97 | (1) |
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Fungal Life-History Strategies |
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98 | (1) |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (4) |
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103 | (2) |
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Fungi-Animal Interactions |
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105 | (2) |
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Geologic Activities of Fungi |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (3) |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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Peronosporomycetes (Oomycota) |
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112 | (1) |
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112 | (5) |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (4) |
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121 | (40) |
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Chlorophyta (Green Algae) |
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123 | (15) |
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124 | (2) |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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128 | (2) |
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Receptaculitida and Cyclocrinales |
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130 | (1) |
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130 | (3) |
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133 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (4) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates) |
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139 | (2) |
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141 | (3) |
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Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) |
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141 | (1) |
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Dictyochophyceae (Silicoflagellates) |
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142 | (1) |
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Xanthophyceae (Yellow-Green Algae) |
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142 | (1) |
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Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae) |
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143 | (1) |
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Prymnesiophyta (Haptophytes) |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (13) |
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146 | (3) |
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Other Calcified Red Algae |
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149 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (8) |
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158 | (3) |
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161 | (18) |
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163 | (2) |
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Anthocerotophyta (Hornworts) |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (13) |
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Marchantiophytina (Liverworts or Hepatophytes) |
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167 | (7) |
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174 | (5) |
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179 | (22) |
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180 | (9) |
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180 | (1) |
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180 | (3) |
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183 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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Nematasketum diversiforme |
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183 | (1) |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (1) |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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Other Enigmatic Organisms |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (2) |
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188 | (1) |
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Isolated Fragments: Clues to the Transition to Land? |
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189 | (4) |
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Cuticle and Cuticle-Like Material |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (3) |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (5) |
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Anchorage and Water Uptake |
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194 | (1) |
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Structural Support and Water Transport |
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195 | (1) |
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Protection Against Desiccation and Radiation |
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195 | (1) |
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195 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (2) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (2) |
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Introduction to Vascular Plant Morphology and Anatomy |
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201 | (22) |
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202 | (1) |
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203 | (3) |
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203 | (1) |
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203 | (1) |
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203 | (1) |
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204 | (1) |
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204 | (2) |
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206 | (1) |
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206 | (1) |
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Plant Tissues and Primary Growth |
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207 | (3) |
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207 | (1) |
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207 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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210 | (1) |
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Anatomy of Stems and Roots |
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210 | (6) |
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Arrangement of Primary Tissues |
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210 | (2) |
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Primary Xylem Maturation Patterns |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (2) |
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216 | (1) |
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216 | (5) |
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Primitive Vascular Plants (Vascular Cryptogams) |
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216 | (3) |
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219 | (2) |
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Leaf Morphology and Anatomy |
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221 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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Early Land Plants with Conducting Tissue |
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223 | (42) |
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Conducting Elements in Early Land Plants |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (2) |
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227 | (25) |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (6) |
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235 | (2) |
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237 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (2) |
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Trichopherophyton teuchansii |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (5) |
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246 | (5) |
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Discussion: Rhyniophyte Evolution |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (7) |
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259 | (1) |
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259 | (4) |
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262 | (1) |
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Early Land Plant Evolution |
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263 | (2) |
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265 | (64) |
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Evolution of the Microphyll |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (3) |
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271 | (8) |
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279 | (15) |
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282 | (1) |
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Stem Surface and Leaf Bases |
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282 | (3) |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (2) |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (4) |
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Development of Underground Organs |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (9) |
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Microsporangiate and Bisporangiate Cones |
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295 | (2) |
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297 | (5) |
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302 | (1) |
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303 | (7) |
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304 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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306 | (1) |
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306 | (1) |
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Other Lepidodendrid Genera |
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307 | (3) |
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310 | (2) |
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312 | (4) |
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316 | (4) |
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320 | (5) |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (3) |
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329 | (54) |
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331 | (1) |
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332 | (10) |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (1) |
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334 | (1) |
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335 | (2) |
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337 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (3) |
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341 | (1) |
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342 | (37) |
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343 | (1) |
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343 | (2) |
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345 | (4) |
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349 | (1) |
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350 | (2) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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353 | (1) |
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354 | (3) |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (8) |
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366 | (2) |
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Tchernoviaceae and Gondwanostachyaceae |
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368 | (1) |
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368 | (1) |
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369 | (2) |
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371 | (5) |
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Forms with Uncertain Affinities |
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376 | (3) |
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379 | (4) |
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Ferns and Early Fernlike Plants |
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383 | (96) |
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Evolution of the Megaphyll |
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386 | (1) |
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387 | (14) |
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388 | (8) |
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396 | (2) |
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398 | (2) |
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Phylogenetic Position of the Cladoxylopsids |
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400 | (1) |
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401 | (17) |
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401 | (1) |
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402 | (1) |
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403 | (1) |
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Systematics of the Rhacophytales |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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405 | (3) |
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408 | (9) |
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417 | (1) |
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418 | (17) |
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Psaroniaceae: Vegetative Features |
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418 | (1) |
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418 | (7) |
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425 | (1) |
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Psaroniaceae: Reproductive Features |
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425 | (6) |
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Paleozoic Compression Taxa |
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431 | (2) |
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433 | (1) |
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434 | (1) |
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435 | (1) |
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436 | (7) |
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436 | (1) |
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437 | (1) |
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438 | (1) |
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Mesozoic and Cenozoic Stem Taxa |
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438 | (2) |
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Sterile and Fertile Foliage |
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440 | (2) |
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442 | (1) |
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443 | (29) |
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443 | (3) |
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446 | (3) |
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449 | (1) |
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449 | (2) |
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451 | (1) |
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452 | (1) |
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453 | (1) |
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454 | (3) |
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457 | (1) |
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457 | (2) |
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459 | (3) |
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462 | (1) |
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462 | (2) |
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464 | (1) |
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465 | (1) |
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466 | (3) |
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469 | (1) |
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469 | (1) |
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470 | (2) |
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472 | (4) |
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472 | (1) |
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473 | (3) |
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476 | (3) |
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479 | (24) |
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480 | (9) |
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481 | (2) |
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Archaeopterid Reproduction |
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483 | (1) |
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484 | (3) |
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487 | (2) |
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489 | (7) |
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489 | (1) |
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489 | (2) |
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491 | (1) |
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492 | (2) |
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494 | (2) |
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496 | (1) |
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497 | (4) |
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501 | (2) |
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Origin and Evolution of the Seed Habit |
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503 | (26) |
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Homospory, Heterospory, and the Seed Habit |
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503 | (8) |
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503 | (1) |
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504 | (1) |
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504 | (3) |
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507 | (1) |
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508 | (1) |
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508 | (1) |
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Evolution of the Integument |
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509 | (1) |
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Evolution of Pollen Capture |
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510 | (1) |
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511 | (1) |
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511 | (1) |
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511 | (7) |
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517 | (1) |
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518 | (11) |
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523 | (1) |
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524 | (1) |
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525 | (1) |
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Paleozoic Seeds with Embryos |
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526 | (3) |
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529 | (92) |
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531 | (8) |
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539 | (1) |
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540 | (6) |
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540 | (1) |
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540 | (2) |
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542 | (4) |
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Other Lyginopterids: Vegetative Remains |
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546 | (9) |
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547 | (3) |
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550 | (1) |
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550 | (1) |
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551 | (1) |
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Devonian-Mississippian Taxa |
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552 | (2) |
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Problematic Lyginopterids |
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554 | (1) |
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Other Lyginopterids: Seeds and Cupules |
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555 | (11) |
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556 | (1) |
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556 | (1) |
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556 | (1) |
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557 | (1) |
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557 | (1) |
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558 | (1) |
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558 | (1) |
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559 | (1) |
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559 | (1) |
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Other Lyginopterids: Pollen Organs |
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560 | (3) |
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563 | (2) |
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565 | (1) |
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566 | (27) |
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566 | (1) |
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566 | (3) |
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569 | (1) |
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570 | (2) |
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572 | (1) |
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572 | (1) |
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573 | (8) |
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581 | (9) |
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590 | (1) |
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591 | (2) |
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|
593 | (5) |
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|
594 | (1) |
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|
595 | (3) |
|
Callistophytalean Evolution |
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|
598 | (1) |
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|
598 | (7) |
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|
599 | (1) |
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|
599 | (4) |
|
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
|
603 | (2) |
|
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
Ovulate Reproductive Structures |
|
|
606 | (10) |
|
|
|
606 | (3) |
|
Impression-Compression Specimens |
|
|
609 | (5) |
|
What is the Glossopterid Ovulate Structure? |
|
|
614 | (2) |
|
|
|
616 | (2) |
|
Glossopteris Habit and Habitat |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (3) |
|
|
|
621 | (30) |
|
|
|
622 | (5) |
|
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
|
627 | (10) |
|
|
|
627 | (3) |
|
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
|
|
631 | (3) |
|
|
|
634 | (3) |
|
|
|
637 | (2) |
|
|
|
639 | (9) |
|
|
|
639 | (4) |
|
Reproductive Organs and Whole-Plant Concepts |
|
|
643 | (5) |
|
|
|
648 | (3) |
|
Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic Foliage |
|
|
651 | (52) |
|
|
|
652 | (33) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
662 | (2) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
Karinopteris, Mariopteris, and Pseudomariopteris |
|
|
665 | (4) |
|
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Linopteris, Reticulopteris, and Barthelopteris |
|
|
669 | (2) |
|
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Lonchopteridium and Lonchopteris |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
Neuropteris sensu stricto |
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
Odontopteris and Lescuropteris |
|
|
677 | (2) |
|
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
Rhodea (=Rhodeopteridium) |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
|
|
680 | (2) |
|
Sphenopteris sensu stricto |
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (2) |
|
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
Triphyllopteris, Genselia, and Charbeckia |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
685 | (18) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
Deltolepis and Cycadolepis |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
691 | (2) |
|
|
|
693 | (2) |
|
Pachypteris, Komlopteris, and Thinnfeldia |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
|
701 | (2) |
|
|
|
703 | (40) |
|
|
|
703 | (19) |
|
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
|
|
707 | (2) |
|
Paleozoic Reproductive Structures |
|
|
709 | (6) |
|
|
|
715 | (3) |
|
|
|
718 | (3) |
|
|
|
721 | (1) |
|
Discussion: Cycad Evolution |
|
|
721 | (1) |
|
|
|
722 | (10) |
|
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
|
|
725 | (3) |
|
|
|
728 | (2) |
|
|
|
730 | (2) |
|
|
|
732 | (7) |
|
|
|
734 | (4) |
|
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
Discussion: Bennettitales |
|
|
739 | (4) |
|
|
|
743 | (14) |
|
|
|
744 | (3) |
|
|
|
747 | (1) |
|
|
|
747 | (3) |
|
Pollen-Producing Structures |
|
|
750 | (1) |
|
|
|
750 | (4) |
|
|
|
750 | (2) |
|
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
Taxa with Uncertain Affinities |
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
|
|
755 | (2) |
|
Gymnosperms with Obscure Affinities |
|
|
757 | (30) |
|
|
|
758 | (5) |
|
|
|
758 | (4) |
|
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
|
|
763 | (2) |
|
|
|
765 | (3) |
|
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
|
|
768 | (5) |
|
|
|
773 | (2) |
|
|
|
775 | (10) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
Extant Reproductive Structures |
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
|
|
778 | (3) |
|
|
|
781 | (4) |
|
|
|
785 | (2) |
|
|
|
787 | (18) |
|
|
|
788 | (7) |
|
|
|
788 | (3) |
|
|
|
791 | (3) |
|
|
|
794 | (1) |
|
|
|
795 | (6) |
|
|
|
795 | (3) |
|
|
|
798 | (3) |
|
|
|
801 | (2) |
|
Phylogenetic Position and Origin of the Cordaites |
|
|
803 | (2) |
|
|
|
805 | (68) |
|
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
|
|
807 | (23) |
|
|
|
808 | (1) |
|
|
|
809 | (1) |
|
|
|
809 | (1) |
|
|
|
809 | (1) |
|
|
|
810 | (1) |
|
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
|
|
811 | (3) |
|
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
|
|
816 | (3) |
|
|
|
819 | (1) |
|
|
|
820 | (1) |
|
|
|
820 | (3) |
|
|
|
823 | (3) |
|
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
|
|
826 | (2) |
|
Summary Discussion: Voltzialeans |
|
|
828 | (2) |
|
|
|
830 | (40) |
|
|
|
830 | (1) |
|
|
|
831 | (6) |
|
Summary Discussion: Cheirolepidiaceae |
|
|
837 | (1) |
|
|
|
838 | (5) |
|
Summary Discussion: Podocarpaceae |
|
|
843 | (1) |
|
|
|
843 | (5) |
|
Summary Discussion: Araucariaceae |
|
|
848 | (1) |
|
|
|
849 | (1) |
|
|
|
850 | (1) |
|
|
|
851 | (1) |
|
|
|
851 | (1) |
|
|
|
852 | (2) |
|
|
|
854 | (3) |
|
|
|
857 | (2) |
|
|
|
859 | (1) |
|
Summary Discussion: Cupressaceae |
|
|
859 | (1) |
|
|
|
860 | (1) |
|
|
|
861 | (1) |
|
|
|
861 | (2) |
|
|
|
863 | (1) |
|
|
|
864 | (2) |
|
|
|
866 | (1) |
|
|
|
866 | (1) |
|
|
|
867 | (1) |
|
|
|
867 | (1) |
|
Summary Discussion: Pinaceae |
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
869 | (1) |
|
Summary Discussion: Cephalotaxaceae and Taxaceae |
|
|
869 | (1) |
|
|
|
870 | (3) |
|
|
|
873 | (126) |
|
|
|
876 | (4) |
|
|
|
877 | (1) |
|
|
|
877 | (1) |
|
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
Transitional-Combination Theory |
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
|
|
879 | (1) |
|
Ecological Considerations |
|
|
879 | (1) |
|
|
|
880 | (1) |
|
Pre-Cretaceous Fossil Evidence |
|
|
880 | (5) |
|
|
|
881 | (1) |
|
|
|
882 | (1) |
|
|
|
883 | (1) |
|
|
|
883 | (1) |
|
|
|
884 | (1) |
|
Early Angiosperm Evidence |
|
|
885 | (8) |
|
|
|
885 | (4) |
|
|
|
889 | (1) |
|
|
|
889 | (4) |
|
|
|
893 | (2) |
|
|
|
894 | (1) |
|
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
Phylogenetic Analyses and Angiosperm Origins |
|
|
895 | (2) |
|
Selected Angiosperm Families |
|
|
897 | (1) |
|
|
|
898 | (6) |
|
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
|
|
899 | (2) |
|
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
|
|
903 | (1) |
|
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
|
|
904 | (13) |
|
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
|
|
904 | (2) |
|
|
|
906 | (1) |
|
|
|
906 | (1) |
|
|
|
906 | (2) |
|
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
|
|
909 | (5) |
|
|
|
914 | (1) |
|
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
|
|
915 | (2) |
|
|
|
917 | (6) |
|
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
|
|
917 | (3) |
|
|
|
920 | (1) |
|
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
923 | (1) |
|
|
|
923 | (1) |
|
|
|
923 | (1) |
|
|
|
923 | (6) |
|
|
|
923 | (1) |
|
|
|
923 | (2) |
|
|
|
925 | (1) |
|
|
|
925 | (1) |
|
|
|
925 | (1) |
|
|
|
925 | (1) |
|
|
|
926 | (2) |
|
|
|
928 | (1) |
|
|
|
928 | (1) |
|
|
|
929 | (1) |
|
|
|
929 | (12) |
|
|
|
930 | (1) |
|
|
|
931 | (2) |
|
|
|
933 | (1) |
|
|
|
933 | (2) |
|
|
|
935 | (2) |
|
|
|
937 | (3) |
|
|
|
940 | (1) |
|
|
|
940 | (1) |
|
|
|
940 | (1) |
|
|
|
941 | (5) |
|
|
|
941 | (1) |
|
|
|
941 | (1) |
|
|
|
941 | (1) |
|
|
|
941 | (1) |
|
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
|
|
943 | (2) |
|
|
|
945 | (1) |
|
|
|
945 | (1) |
|
|
|
946 | (1) |
|
|
|
946 | (4) |
|
|
|
947 | (1) |
|
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
|
|
948 | (2) |
|
|
|
950 | (1) |
|
|
|
950 | (26) |
|
|
|
950 | (1) |
|
|
|
950 | (3) |
|
|
|
953 | (1) |
|
|
|
953 | (2) |
|
|
|
955 | (1) |
|
|
|
956 | (5) |
|
|
|
961 | (5) |
|
|
|
966 | (1) |
|
|
|
966 | (1) |
|
|
|
967 | (1) |
|
|
|
967 | (1) |
|
|
|
968 | (2) |
|
|
|
970 | (1) |
|
|
|
970 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
971 | (2) |
|
|
|
973 | (3) |
|
|
|
976 | (10) |
|
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
|
|
979 | (2) |
|
|
|
981 | (1) |
|
|
|
981 | (1) |
|
|
|
981 | (3) |
|
|
|
984 | (1) |
|
|
|
984 | (1) |
|
|
|
985 | (1) |
|
|
|
985 | (1) |
|
|
|
985 | (1) |
|
|
|
985 | (1) |
|
|
|
986 | (2) |
|
|
|
986 | (1) |
|
|
|
987 | (1) |
|
|
|
987 | (1) |
|
|
|
987 | (1) |
|
|
|
987 | (1) |
|
|
|
987 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
Euasterids II (Campanulids) |
|
|
988 | (3) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
|
|
990 | (1) |
|
|
|
990 | (1) |
|
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
|
|
991 | (5) |
|
|
|
996 | (3) |
|
Interactions Between Plants and Animals |
|
|
999 | (28) |
|
Early Terrestrial Ecosystem Associations |
|
|
1001 | (2) |
|
|
|
1001 | (1) |
|
Early Plant-Animal Associations |
|
|
1001 | (2) |
|
|
|
1003 | (13) |
|
Defenses Against Herbivory |
|
|
1004 | (1) |
|
|
|
1005 | (1) |
|
|
|
1006 | (1) |
|
Fossil Evidence of Herbivory |
|
|
1007 | (1) |
|
|
|
1007 | (4) |
|
|
|
1011 | (1) |
|
|
|
1011 | (2) |
|
|
|
1013 | (1) |
|
|
|
1013 | (2) |
|
|
|
1015 | (1) |
|
Interactions with Vertebrates |
|
|
1016 | (3) |
|
|
|
1016 | (2) |
|
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
Coprolites and Stomach Contents |
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
|
|
1019 | (2) |
|
Other Plant-Animal Interactions |
|
|
1021 | (3) |
|
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
|
|
1022 | (2) |
|
|
|
1024 | (3) |
| Appendix 1: Classification of Organisms |
|
1027 | (4) |
| Glossary |
|
1031 | (18) |
| References |
|
1049 | (150) |
| Index |
|
1199 | |
Daugiau apie elektronines knygas