| Preface |
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xv | |
| Acknowledgments |
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xvii | |
| Authors |
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xix | |
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Chapter 1 An Introduction To Parasitism |
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1 | (26) |
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1.1 Building An Understanding Of The Basics Of Parasites |
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5 | (7) |
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Parasites live in or on their hosts and cause them harm |
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5 | (2) |
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Opinions vary on how to define some of the key aspects of parasites and their biology |
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7 | (1) |
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The residence time for a parasite in or on a host is highly variable |
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8 | (1) |
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There are many additional ways to categorize parasites |
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9 | (3) |
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Parasites included in this book |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2 Hosts---Essential Lifelines For Parasites |
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12 | (3) |
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14 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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1.3 Appreciating Parasitism's Place In Nature |
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15 | (6) |
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Parasitism is one of several categories of symbiotic associations |
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15 | (2) |
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Parasitoids straddle the boundary between predation and parasitism |
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17 | (1) |
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Our understanding of parasitism is enhanced by an appreciation of its relationship to another ubiquitous type of symbiosis, mutualism |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (4) |
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Chapter 2 An Overview Of Parasite Diversity |
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27 | (62) |
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2.1 The Diversity Of Parasite Species |
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30 | (26) |
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What constitutes a parasite species requires some explanation |
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30 | (3) |
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Given these considerations, how many species of parasites inhabit the Earth? |
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33 | (3) |
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Taxonomy, systematics, phylogenetics and evolutionary trees as essential approaches to understanding parasite diversity |
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36 | (2) |
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Enormous progress has been made in revealing the overall diversity of life |
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38 | (1) |
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Many bacteria are parasites |
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39 | (1) |
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Eukaryotes are a very diverse group that includes many different kinds of parasites |
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40 | (6) |
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The Apicomplexa is a huge, important, nearly exclusively parasitic group of organisms |
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46 | (1) |
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Many well-known parasites belong to familiar groups of multicellular organisms |
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47 | (9) |
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2.2 Insights Into Parasitism From The Study Of Diversity |
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56 | (11) |
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The phylogenetic affinities of enigmatic parasites can be revealed |
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56 | (3) |
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Studies of parasite diversity reveal how particular parasites came to infect humans |
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59 | (2) |
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Studies of diversity can help reconstruct the historical biogeography of parasites |
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61 | (2) |
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Complexes of cryptic parasite species are coming to light |
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63 | (2) |
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Studies of parasite diversity help provide a better foundation for taxonomy |
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65 | (1) |
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Do parasites give rise to free-living organisms? |
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66 | (1) |
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2.3 Genetic Diversity Also Exists Within Parasite Species |
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67 | (3) |
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Diversity within parasite species is extensive and important |
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67 | (3) |
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2.4 The Genomes Of Parasites---A Largely Untapped Goldmine Of Diversity |
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70 | (12) |
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Parasites have been an important part of the genome sequencing effort |
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71 | (2) |
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The evolution of compact genomes of reduced size is characteristic of some parasites |
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73 | (1) |
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But parasite genomes also show several novel capabilities and gene family expansions |
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73 | (3) |
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Genome studies have revealed horizontal gene transfer (HGT) to be a frequent feature of parasite genomes |
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76 | (1) |
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Parasite genomes are dynamic and changeable |
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77 | (1) |
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The study of epigenetic modifications of parasite genomes is in its infancy but likely to be transformative |
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78 | (1) |
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What parasite genomes have yet to tell us |
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79 | (3) |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (5) |
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Chapter 3 The Parasite's Way Of Life |
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89 | (44) |
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3.1 A Historical Perspective Of The Parasite Life Cycle |
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90 | (5) |
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Early medical and natural history studies gave rise to an understanding of parasite life cycles |
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90 | (3) |
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Mosquito transmission was first demonstrated for filarial worms |
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93 | (1) |
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Arthropod transmission for filarial worms suggested that other diseases may be similarly transmitted |
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93 | (2) |
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3.2 An Overview Of Parasite Life Cycles |
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95 | (4) |
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Parasites with direct life cycles use only a single host |
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95 | (1) |
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Two or more hosts are necessary for those parasites with indirect life cycles |
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96 | (3) |
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3.3 The Parasite's To Do List |
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99 | (29) |
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Effective transmission is essential for all parasites |
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100 | (8) |
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High reproductive rates are common in many parasite life cycles |
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108 | (2) |
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Apicomplexans utilize both sexual and asexual reproduction |
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110 | (1) |
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Parasites may use strategies other than high fecundity to achieve transmission |
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111 | (1) |
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Many factors can complicate an understanding of parasite transmission |
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112 | (1) |
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Mathematical models provide a useful tool to predict transmission rates |
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113 | (1) |
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Many parasites must migrate to specific sites or tissues within the host |
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114 | (4) |
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The evolution of complex migration within a host is not always clear |
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118 | (1) |
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Parasites are adapted to maintain their position on or within the host |
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119 | (1) |
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Finding a mate is a requirement for many sexually reproducing parasites |
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120 | (1) |
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Propagules are released through a portal of exit |
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121 | (1) |
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Parasites undergo complex developmental changes in response to environmental cues |
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121 | (2) |
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Developmental change is associated with changes in gene expression |
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123 | (1) |
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Mechanisms responsible for differential gene expression during development are being revealed |
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124 | (4) |
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128 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (4) |
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Chapter 4 Host Defense And Parasite Evasion |
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133 | (56) |
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4.1 An Evolutionary Perspective On Anti-Parasitic Immune Responses |
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134 | (19) |
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Prokaryotes have developed remarkable immune innovations during their billions of years encountering parasites |
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134 | (3) |
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Many kinds of parasites compromise the health of plants, so it is important to know how plants defend themselves |
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137 | (1) |
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Although plants lack specialized immune cells, they still can mount effective, long-term responses to parasites |
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138 | (2) |
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Many nematode species are specialized to parasitize plants |
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140 | (1) |
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Invertebrates have distinctive and diverse innate immune systems |
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141 | (1) |
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Invertebrates, including vectors and intermediate hosts, mount immune responses to contend with their parasites |
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142 | (4) |
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Invertebrates also adopt distinctive behaviors to supplement their anti-parasite immune responses |
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146 | (1) |
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Parasites suppress, manipulate and destroy invertebrate defense responses |
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147 | (1) |
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Some parasites rely on symbiotic partners to subvert the immune responses of their invertebrate hosts |
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148 | (2) |
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Some invertebrates enlist symbionts to aid in their defense |
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150 | (2) |
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Researchers hope to manipulate invertebrate immune systems to achieve parasite control |
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152 | (1) |
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4.2 An Overview Of Vertebrate Defense |
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153 | (2) |
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4.3 Immune Responses To Eukaryotic Parasites |
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155 | (15) |
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Recognition of PAMPS initiates the immune response to protozoa |
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155 | (3) |
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Protozoa stimulate both humoral and cell-mediated responses |
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158 | (3) |
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Protective immunity to malaria develops as a consequence of repeated exposure |
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161 | (1) |
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Immune responses are generated against each stage in the Plasmodium life cycle |
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162 | (2) |
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A clearer understanding of immune responses to helminths is emerging |
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164 | (1) |
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Helminth parasites provoke a strong Th-2 response |
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165 | (2) |
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Extensive changes to the intestinal epithelium occur in response to intestinal helminths |
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167 | (3) |
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4.4 Parasite Evasion Of Host Defenses |
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170 | (12) |
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Many parasites can evade complement-mediated innate immune responses |
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170 | (1) |
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Intracellular parasites have evolved mechanisms to avoid destruction in host cells |
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171 | (1) |
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Parasites may interfere with intracellular signaling pathways |
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171 | (2) |
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Some parasites interfere with antigen presentation, resulting in an impaired immune response |
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173 | (1) |
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Some parasites regularly change their surface antigens to avoid immune responses |
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174 | (3) |
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Parasites frequently suppress or alter host immune responses by interfering with intercellular communication |
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177 | (3) |
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Some parasites render themselves invisible to immune detection |
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180 | (1) |
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Various parasites can undermine the effector functions of antibodies |
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181 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (6) |
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Chapter 5 Parasite Versus Host: Pathology And Disease |
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189 | (36) |
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5.1 Pathology Resulting From Parasitic Infections |
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190 | (23) |
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Parasites can induce pathogenesis in various ways |
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190 | (1) |
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Pathology can be categorized as one of several general types |
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191 | (1) |
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Parasites can cause direct trauma to host cells, tissues and organs |
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192 | (1) |
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Various factors influence the virulence of Entamoeba histolytica |
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193 | (3) |
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Malaria can cause serious complications during pregnancy |
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196 | (1) |
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Parasitic infection can alter host-cell growth patterns |
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196 | (5) |
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Many parasites adversely affect host nutrition |
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201 | (2) |
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Anemia is a serious complication of many parasitic infections |
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203 | (1) |
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Plasmodium infections can result in host iron deficiency |
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203 | (1) |
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Toxins are a less frequent component of parasite pathology |
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203 | (3) |
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Pathology often results from immune-mediated damage to host cells and tissues |
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206 | (1) |
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Immunopathology is an important component of the pathology observed in malaria |
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207 | (1) |
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Granulomas formed in response to parasite antigen are both protective and pathological |
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208 | (3) |
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Parasites may serve as a trigger for autoimmunity |
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211 | (1) |
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Parasite-induced alterations in the host microbiota can exacerbate disease |
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212 | (1) |
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5.2 Parasites And Host Behavior |
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213 | (4) |
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Some parasites may modify host behavior to facilitate transmission |
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213 | (1) |
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The mechanisms that parasites use to alter host behavior are obscure |
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214 | (1) |
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Parasite-secreted molecules that impact host neurological activity remain largely unidentified |
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215 | (2) |
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5.3 Parasite-Mediated Amelioration Of Pathology |
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217 | (4) |
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Parasitic infection may be required for proper immune system development |
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218 | (1) |
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Certain intestinal helminths may reduce the host inflammatory response |
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218 | (1) |
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Intestinal helminth infection results in activation of regulatory T cells |
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219 | (2) |
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221 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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222 | (3) |
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Chapter 6 The Ecology Of Parasitism |
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225 | (70) |
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6.1 Defining The Habitats Of Parasites |
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226 | (10) |
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Parasites occupy multiple habitats in succession |
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226 | (1) |
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Parasites have microhabitat preferences and occupy specific sites within or on their hosts |
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227 | (3) |
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Host specificity is one of parasitisms most distinctive properties |
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230 | (2) |
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The concept of encounter and compatibility filters help us understand how the range of host species used by a parasite is determined |
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232 | (2) |
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The origins and consequences of host specificity are debated |
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234 | (2) |
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6.2 Parasite Population Biology |
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236 | (7) |
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Parasite populations are complex |
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236 | (1) |
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Parasites often show aggregated (overdispersed) distributions in their hosts |
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236 | (3) |
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Both density-independent and density-dependent factors influence parasite population size |
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239 | (2) |
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Intraspecific competition can regulate parasite populations in different ways |
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241 | (2) |
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6.3 Parasite Community Ecology |
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243 | (12) |
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The richness of parasite communities varies among host species for reasons that are debated |
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246 | (1) |
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Parasite species within infracommunities engage in negative and positive interactions with one another |
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246 | (6) |
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Human parasites have a distinctive community ecology |
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252 | (2) |
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Parasite community ecology yields its secrets slowly, but progress is being made |
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254 | (1) |
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6.4 The Role Of Parasites In Food Webs And Ecosystems |
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255 | (5) |
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Parasites can be a food source for other organisms |
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257 | (3) |
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6.5 Global Patterns In Parasite Diversity |
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260 | (2) |
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6.6 Parasite Effects On Host Ecology |
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262 | (14) |
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Hosts try both to avoid infection and to actively remove parasites if they do become infected |
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263 | (2) |
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Hosts also engage in self-medication, presumably to mitigate parasite infection |
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265 | (1) |
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Parasites influence host migratory behavior |
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266 | (1) |
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Parasites and regulation of host populations examples are few |
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267 | (2) |
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Parasites influence competitive interactions among hosts |
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269 | (1) |
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Parasites can manipulate their hosts, including to affect the likelihood of predation |
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270 | (4) |
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Other ecological contexts in which parasite manipulation can occur |
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274 | (2) |
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6.7 Ecological Immunology |
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276 | (2) |
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6.8 The Metabolic Theory Of Ecology, Parasites And Even Climate Change |
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278 | (2) |
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6.9 Epidemiology And Its Relationships With Ecology |
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280 | (7) |
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Modeling is an invaluable approach to the study of infectious diseases |
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280 | (1) |
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Microparasites exemplify basic modeling approaches that estimate population size and clarify transmission |
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281 | (2) |
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Models of macroparasite populations and transmission involve keeping track of individual parasites |
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283 | (2) |
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Models for parasites with complex life cycles involving vectors become more complex |
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285 | (1) |
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Many new modeling approaches are available to investigate parasite population dynamics, distributions and risk/cost assessments |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (2) |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (5) |
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Chapter 7 Evolutionary Biology Of Parasitism |
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295 | (72) |
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7.1 Microevolution In Parasites |
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296 | (13) |
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Microevolution in parasites is studied using an ever more powerful toolbox |
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298 | (1) |
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The subdivided nature of their populations influences the evolution of parasites |
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299 | (1) |
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The effective population size, Ne, influences parasite evolution |
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300 | (1) |
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The mode of parasite reproduction affects microevolutionary change |
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301 | (2) |
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Stability of the host environment influences parasite microevolution |
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303 | (1) |
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The mobility of parasites impacts their evolution, as exemplified by bird lice |
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304 | (1) |
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Parasite microevolutionary change is strongly impacted by host mobility |
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305 | (1) |
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A parasites life cycle also affects the potential for evolutionary change |
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306 | (3) |
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7.2 Coevolution Of Parasite-Host Interactions |
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309 | (6) |
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Parasites and hosts reciprocally affect each other's evolution |
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309 | (1) |
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Parasites and hosts engage in arms races |
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309 | (2) |
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In parasite-host relationships, there can be an advantage to being rare |
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311 | (1) |
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The degree to which parasites and hosts become locally adapted to one another depends on circumstances |
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312 | (1) |
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Our perspectives on coevolutionary dynamics between parasites and hosts are changing |
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313 | (2) |
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7.3 The Evolution Of Virulence |
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315 | (4) |
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Virulence passes through phases in particular parasite-host interactions |
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315 | (1) |
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The mode of transmission influences virulence |
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316 | (2) |
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Other factors might also influence the level of virulence |
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318 | (1) |
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7.4 Macroevolutionary Parasitology |
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319 | (18) |
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New parasite species are potentially formed in at least three different ways |
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322 | (2) |
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Different outcomes can be expected when parasites or their hosts diversify |
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324 | (1) |
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What does the evidence suggest about how parasites have speciated? |
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324 | (4) |
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Does sympatric speciation occur in parasites? |
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328 | (1) |
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329 | (2) |
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Parasites go extinct, sometimes along with their hosts |
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331 | (2) |
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How hybridization in parasites can greatly influence their biology... and control |
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333 | (1) |
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Macroevolutionary patterns among parasites are not yet very clear |
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334 | (3) |
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7.5 Some Distinctive Aspects Of Parasite Evolution |
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337 | (7) |
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Organisms have repeatedly adopted parasitism by more than one route |
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337 | (2) |
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Some parasites are derived from their hosts |
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339 | (1) |
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Selection can favor the evolution of complex parasite life cycles |
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340 | (2) |
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Sometimes complex life cycles are simplified secondarily |
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342 | (1) |
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Parasites often have simplified bodies or streamlined genomes but also have other talents not seen in free-living organisms |
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342 | (2) |
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7.6 Parasite Effects On Host Evolution |
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344 | (15) |
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Parasites select for genetic changes and genetic diversity in their hosts |
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344 | (2) |
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Parasites affect the evolution of host MHC genes |
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346 | (3) |
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Parasites play a role in host selection of mates |
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349 | (4) |
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Host speciation may be facilitated by parasites |
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353 | (2) |
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Can infection directly cause speciation? |
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355 | (2) |
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Parasites are believed to favor the evolution of sexual reproduction in their hosts |
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357 | (1) |
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Parasites can cause the extinction of host species |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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360 | (1) |
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360 | (7) |
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Chapter 8 Parasites And Conservation Biology |
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367 | (52) |
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8.1 Some Theory About Parasites And Conservation Biology |
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369 | (3) |
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Theory often predicts parasites will not extirpate their hosts, but by no means always |
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370 | (1) |
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Persistent parasite infectious stages may also favor demise of host populations |
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371 | (1) |
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The presence of a parasite-tolerant host species may endanger a susceptible one |
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371 | (1) |
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8.2 Parasites Influence Efforts To Preserve Hosts |
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372 | (13) |
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Parasites can cause extinction of host species |
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372 | (2) |
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Parasites work in concert with other stressors to affect hosts |
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374 | (2) |
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The impact of parasitism may be altered when hosts occur in small fragmented populations |
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376 | (1) |
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Parasites can strongly affect hosts with reduced genetic variation |
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377 | (3) |
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Captive host populations are often very vulnerable to parasites |
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380 | (1) |
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Parasites are frequently transferred from abundant host species to rare relatives, including from humans to our great ape cousins |
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381 | (2) |
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Farming can pose parasite problems for wild host species |
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383 | (1) |
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Parasites of an iconic symbol---the giant panda---point out our need to know more |
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383 | (2) |
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8.3 Dangers Resulting From Species Introductions |
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385 | (13) |
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Parasites can be introduced with their hosts and have spillover effects |
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388 | (2) |
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Introduced hosts can favor indigenous parasites and cause spillback effects |
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390 | (1) |
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Sometimes introduced non-host organisms can influence indigenous parasite transmission |
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391 | (1) |
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Invading hosts can benefit by leaving their natural enemies, such as parasites, behind |
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392 | (2) |
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Invasive hosts may be aided by the parasites they carry---the novel weapons hypothesis |
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394 | (1) |
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Invasive hosts can potentially be controlled by parasites from their original range |
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395 | (1) |
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Introductions of parasites or hosts often fail |
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396 | (1) |
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Can invasional meltdown occur? |
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396 | (2) |
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8.4 Parasites As Indicators Of Environmental Health |
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398 | (4) |
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Parasites can help us monitor ecosystem integrity |
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398 | (1) |
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Environmental parasitology---a relatively new approach to the study of parasites |
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399 | (1) |
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When the appearance of parasites signals habitat pollution |
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400 | (2) |
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8.5 Parasites As Inferential Tools To Preserve Host Biodiversity |
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402 | (1) |
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Parasites can provide information useful to preserving their hosts |
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402 | (1) |
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8.6 The Need To Preserve Parasite Diversity |
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403 | (10) |
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Parasites play key roles in maintaining ecosystem health |
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403 | (1) |
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Parasites are drivers of biodiversity |
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404 | (1) |
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Parasites are a source of pharmacological and therapeutic novelties |
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405 | (1) |
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Parasites can provide surprising basic insights on host biology |
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406 | (1) |
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Slip sliding away---parasite diversity is being lost |
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406 | (5) |
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Translocations, co-introductions, rewilding and even de-extinctions of parasites |
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411 | (2) |
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413 | (1) |
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414 | (1) |
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415 | (4) |
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Chapter 9 The Challenge Of Parasite Control |
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419 | (52) |
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9.1 Strategies To Reduce Parasite Transmission |
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420 | (17) |
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Parasite transmission may be reduced in various ways |
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420 | (1) |
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Parasites using trophic transmission can be controlled by ensuring food safety |
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421 | (2) |
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Proper sanitation is the key to controlling parasites transmitted via the fecal-oral route |
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423 | (1) |
|
Various other factors influence the success of control efforts |
|
|
424 | (2) |
|
The control of vector-borne diseases focuses on reducing human-vector contact |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
The discovery of DDT radically altered vector control efforts |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
Newer insecticides provide alternatives to DDT |
|
|
427 | (2) |
|
Transmission of vector-borne parasites can be reduced through environmental manipulation |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Biological control offers the possibility of low-cost, sustainable control |
|
|
430 | (2) |
|
Vectors may be controlled through manipulation of their microbiota |
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
The sterile male technique has been used to reduce or eliminate vector populations |
|
|
432 | (2) |
|
Transgenic vectors provide hope as a means to reduce vector capacity |
|
|
434 | (2) |
|
Gene drive may allow transgenes to spread rapidly through a vector population |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
|
|
437 | (15) |
|
Various factors influence the selection of the best anti-parasitic drug in different situations |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
Different drugs may be appropriate for treatment and for prophylaxis |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
Drugs may be used to either treat or protect individuals or to protect a population |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Certain drugs are active only against specific parasite life cycle stages |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
The use of anti-parasitic drugs can lead to resistance |
|
|
441 | (3) |
|
Genetic alterations can cause resistance in diverse ways |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
Resistance poses a considerable problem for disease control programs |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
Drug resistance can be prevented or reversed |
|
|
447 | (2) |
|
Concerns about resistance highlight the need for new anti-parasitic drugs |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
New drugs are also needed to replace older more toxic medications |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Economic issues can affect the rate at which new drugs are developed |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
|
|
452 | (11) |
|
Vaccines must be safe and inexpensive, while inducing long term immunity |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Vaccines against eukaryotic parasites are particularly problematic |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Vaccines can be categorized into several types |
|
|
455 | (2) |
|
An effective malaria vaccine has been the object of intensive investigation |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Vaccines against different life cycle stages offer different potential benefits |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
A variety of candidate vaccines are at various stages of development |
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
Several anti-eukaryote vaccines are available for veterinary use |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Vaccines against helminth parasites are being investigated |
|
|
461 | (2) |
|
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
|
465 | (6) |
|
Chapter 10 The Future Of Parasitology |
|
|
471 | (34) |
|
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
10.2 Some Future Challenges For Parasitologists |
|
|
473 | (11) |
|
Plenty of parasite biodiversity yet to characterize and preserve before it's gone |
|
|
473 | (2) |
|
Learning how parasite life cycles will respond to challenges |
|
|
475 | (2) |
|
Ecological and evolutionary perspectives are needed to understand the impact of coming changes |
|
|
477 | (3) |
|
Climate change will affect parasites, but we still have much to learn about how |
|
|
480 | (4) |
|
10.3 Controlling Parasites In The Future |
|
|
484 | (15) |
|
Human parasites of greatest concern---a changing cast of characters? |
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
More parasite 'omics please |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Revealing in detail how parasite and host molecules interact is needed to clarify many fundamental aspects of parasitism |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
Improved understanding of immunity should enable the development of new anti-parasite vaccines, but so far the parasites are winning |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
Chemotherapy-based control is an arms race between human ingenuity and parasite evolvability |
|
|
489 | (4) |
|
Integrated control may provide the best prospects for sustainable parasite control and is built on a thorough knowledge of parasite biology |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Ambitious new goals are outlined to eradicate, eliminate or control neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) |
|
|
494 | (3) |
|
We will need improved methods to detect and diagnose low levels of parasite infection and transmission in the future |
|
|
497 | (2) |
|
Provision of improved living conditions, including education, will further discourage parasite transmission |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
|
|
501 | (4) |
| Rogues' Gallery Of Parasites |
|
505 | (1) |
| The Protozoa (Or Protists) |
|
506 | (29) |
| Phylum Platyhelminthes |
|
535 | (22) |
| Phylum Nematoda |
|
557 | (18) |
| The Arthropods |
|
575 | (23) |
| Others |
|
598 | (9) |
| Glossary |
|
607 | (18) |
| Index |
|
625 | |
