Preface |
|
xvii | |
Acknowledgments |
|
xxi | |
Authors |
|
xxiii | |
1 Reservoir Fluid Properties |
|
1 | (58) |
|
|
1 | (1) |
|
|
1 | (18) |
|
1.2.1 Gas Reservoirs: Hydrocarbon Gases Are Defined Based on Their Occurrences |
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
1.2.1.1 Dry Gas Reservoirs |
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
1.2.1.2 Wet Gas Reservoirs |
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
1.2.1.3 Gas Condensate Reservoirs |
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
1.2.2 Non-hydrocarbon Gases |
|
|
5 | (5) |
|
1.2.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) |
|
|
5 | (1) |
|
1.2.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Gas |
|
|
5 | (1) |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
1.2.2.4 Coalbed Methane Gas |
|
|
6 | (2) |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
1.2.3 Physical Properties of Gas |
|
|
10 | (2) |
|
|
10 | (1) |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.2.3.3 Gas Viscosity, Pg |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.2.3.4 Gas Deviation Factor Z |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.2.3.5 Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.2.4 Oil Reservoir Types |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
1.2.4.1 Black Oil Reservoirs |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
1.2.4.2 Volatile Oil Reservoirs |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
1.2.4.3 Heavy and Extra-Heavy Oil |
|
|
13 | (1) |
|
1.2.5 Physical Properties of Crude Oil |
|
|
13 | (5) |
|
1.2.5.1 Bubble-Point Pressure, Ph |
|
|
14 | (1) |
|
1.2.5.2 Oil Formation Factor, B |
|
|
14 | (1) |
|
1.2.5.3 Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg |
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
1.2.5.4 Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, R |
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
1.2.5.5 Oil Viscosity, Po |
|
|
16 | (1) |
|
|
17 | (1) |
|
1.2.5.7 Oil Compressibility, co |
|
|
17 | (1) |
|
1.2.6 Chemical Properties |
|
|
18 | (2) |
|
|
18 | (1) |
|
|
18 | (1) |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
1.2.6.4 Resins and Asphaltenes |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
1.3 Non-hydrocarbon Crude Components |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
1.4 Ternary Presentations of Crude Oil Classifications |
|
|
20 | (8) |
|
|
21 | (2) |
|
1.4.1.1 Composition and Salinity |
|
|
22 | (1) |
|
1.4.1.2 Formation Volume Factor |
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
1.4.2 Water Solubility in Hydrocarbon System |
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
|
23 | (2) |
|
|
25 | (1) |
|
1.4.4 Pure-Component Systems |
|
|
25 | (3) |
|
1.5 PV Diagram for Pure Systems |
|
|
28 | (1) |
|
|
29 | (1) |
|
1.7 Effect of Composition on Phase Behavior |
|
|
30 | (1) |
|
|
31 | (2) |
|
1.9 Retrograde Condensation |
|
|
33 | (1) |
|
1.10 Multicomponent Phase Behavior of Hydrocarbon |
|
|
34 | (5) |
|
1.10.1 Phase Behavior of Oil |
|
|
34 | (1) |
|
1.10.1.1 Undersaturated Oil |
|
|
34 | (1) |
|
|
34 | (1) |
|
|
35 | (1) |
|
1.10.2 Phase Behavior of Gas |
|
|
35 | (3) |
|
|
35 | (2) |
|
|
37 | (1) |
|
|
37 | (1) |
|
1.10.3 Comparison of Phase Diagram of Hydrocarbon Fluids |
|
|
38 | (1) |
|
1.10.4 Phase Diagram of Reservoirs with Gas Cap |
|
|
39 | (1) |
|
|
39 | (8) |
|
1.11.1 Ternary Diagrams as a Function of Pressure |
|
|
41 | (2) |
|
1.11.2 Equation of States |
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
1.11.3 van der Waals Equation |
|
|
44 | (1) |
|
1.11.4 Redlich-Kwong Equation |
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
1.11.5 Soave-Redlich-Kwong Equation |
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
1.11.6 Peng-Robinson Equation |
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
1.11.7 Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation |
|
|
47 | (1) |
|
1.12 Comparative Assessment of RK, SRK, and PR EOS |
|
|
47 | (10) |
|
|
47 | (1) |
|
1.12.2 Soave-Redlich-Kwong and Peng-Robinson EOS |
|
|
48 | (1) |
|
1.12.3 Zc as a Measure of Goodness of an EOS |
|
|
48 | (1) |
|
1.12.4 "Universal" Zc Predicted by Different EOS |
|
|
48 | (1) |
|
1.12.5 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium |
|
|
48 | (1) |
|
1.12.6 Pressure and Temperature |
|
|
49 | (1) |
|
|
50 | (1) |
|
1.12.8 Reservoir Temperature |
|
|
51 | (4) |
|
1.12.8.1 Impact of Temperature on Subsurface Parameters |
|
|
52 | (1) |
|
1.12.8.2 Subsurface Gas Density |
|
|
52 | (1) |
|
1.12.8.3 Subsurface Fluid Viscosity |
|
|
53 | (1) |
|
1.12.8.4 Geothermal Gradient |
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
1.12.8.5 Sources of Temperature Measurement |
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
1.12.9 Reservoir Fluid Analysis |
|
|
55 | (1) |
|
1.12.9.1 Compositional Variations |
|
|
56 | (1) |
|
1.12.10 Non-equilibrium Distribution of Hydrocarbons |
|
|
56 | (1) |
|
|
57 | (2) |
2 Fluid Characterization and Recovery Mechanism |
|
59 | (54) |
|
|
59 | (1) |
|
2.2 Reservoir Recovery Processes |
|
|
60 | (7) |
|
2.2.1 Rock-Fluid Expansion |
|
|
61 | (1) |
|
2.2.2 Depletion or Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs |
|
|
62 | (1) |
|
|
63 | (2) |
|
2.2.4 Water-Drive Reservoirs |
|
|
65 | (1) |
|
|
65 | (1) |
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
2.2.6.1 General Material Balance Equation |
|
|
67 | (1) |
|
|
67 | (4) |
|
2.3.1 Volumetric Gas Reservoirs |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
2.3.2 Water-Drive Gas Reservoir |
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
2.3.3 Gas Condensate Reservoirs Production |
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
2.3.4 Fluid Characterization for Reservoir Simulations |
|
|
70 | (1) |
|
|
71 | (6) |
|
|
72 | (2) |
|
|
74 | (2) |
|
2.4.2.1 Flue Gas Injection |
|
|
75 | (1) |
|
2.4.2.2 Nitrogen Injection |
|
|
75 | (1) |
|
2.4.2.3 Carbon Dioxide Injection |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
|
77 | (14) |
|
|
81 | (3) |
|
2.5.1.1 Polysaccharides Biopolymer |
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
2.5.1.2 Synthetic Polymer |
|
|
83 | (1) |
|
2.5.2 Effect of Concentration and Shear Rate on Viscosity |
|
|
84 | (1) |
|
2.5.3 Rheology of Polymer and Shear Impact |
|
|
84 | (1) |
|
|
84 | (1) |
|
|
84 | (4) |
|
2.5.6 Surfactant Flooding |
|
|
88 | (3) |
|
2.5.6.1 Fluid-Fluid Interactions |
|
|
89 | (1) |
|
|
90 | (1) |
|
|
91 | (8) |
|
2.6.1 Immiscible and Miscible Water-Alternating Gas (IWAG) Injection |
|
|
92 | (1) |
|
|
93 | (5) |
|
2.6.2.1 Multi-Contact Miscibility |
|
|
95 | (1) |
|
2.6.2.2 Vaporizing Gas Drive |
|
|
95 | (2) |
|
2.6.2.3 Condensing Gas Drive |
|
|
97 | (1) |
|
2.6.2.4 Condensing and Vaporizing Drive |
|
|
97 | (1) |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
2.6.3.1 Trapping Mechanisms and Long-Term Fate of CO2 |
|
|
99 | (1) |
|
|
99 | (10) |
|
2.7.1 Cyclic Steam Stimulation |
|
|
100 | (2) |
|
|
102 | (5) |
|
2.7.3 Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) |
|
|
107 | (1) |
|
|
107 | (2) |
|
2.8 PVT Data for Thermal EOR Processes |
|
|
109 | (1) |
|
|
110 | (3) |
3 Advanced Fluid Sampling and Characterization of Complex Hydrocarbon Systems |
|
113 | (16) |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
|
113 | (12) |
|
3.2.1 Sampling Location Considerations |
|
|
114 | (4) |
|
|
114 | (2) |
|
3.2.1.2 Compositional Gradients and API |
|
|
116 | (2) |
|
3.2.2 Sampling Challenges |
|
|
118 | (17) |
|
3.2.2.1 Downhole Sampling |
|
|
119 | (5) |
|
|
124 | (1) |
|
|
125 | (1) |
|
|
126 | (3) |
4 Planning of Laboratory Studies |
|
129 | (14) |
|
|
129 | (1) |
|
4.2 Conventional Oil and Gas Experiments |
|
|
130 | (5) |
|
4.3 Special Laboratory Experiments |
|
|
135 | (7) |
|
|
135 | (1) |
|
4.3.2 Minimum Miscibility Pressure |
|
|
136 | (2) |
|
4.3.3 Multiple Contact Miscibility |
|
|
138 | (2) |
|
4.3.3.1 Vaporizing Gas Drive |
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
4.3.3.2 Condensing Gas Drive |
|
|
139 | (1) |
|
4.3.4 Fluid Compatibility Studies |
|
|
140 | (1) |
|
4.3.5 Asphaltene Precipitation Envelope |
|
|
141 | (1) |
|
|
142 | (1) |
5 Phase Behavior of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids in the Dense Phase or Supercritical Region |
|
143 | (34) |
|
5.1 Definition of Dense or Supercritical Phase |
|
|
143 | (4) |
|
5.2 Variation of Dense Phase Fluid Properties with Temperature and Pressure |
|
|
147 | (4) |
|
5.3 High Temperature High Pressure (HTHP) and/or Hyperbaric Reservoir Fluids |
|
|
151 | (2) |
|
5.4 Measurement and Modeling of Dense Phase Fluid Properties |
|
|
153 | (4) |
|
5.5 Practical Significance of Dense Fluid Phase in Transportation and EOR |
|
|
157 | (13) |
|
5.6 Successful Applications-Case Studies |
|
|
170 | (2) |
|
|
170 | (1) |
|
5.6.2 Dense Phase or Supercritical Water (SCW) |
|
|
171 | (1) |
|
5.6.3 The General Prominence of Supercritical Fluids |
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
|
172 | (5) |
6 Special Characterization for EOR Processes |
|
177 | (16) |
|
|
177 | (1) |
|
|
177 | (1) |
|
6.3 EOS Role on Numerical Simulation |
|
|
178 | (2) |
|
|
180 | (5) |
|
6.4.1 Slimtube Calibration |
|
|
183 | (2) |
|
|
185 | (2) |
|
|
186 | (1) |
|
|
187 | (4) |
|
6.6.1 Finite-Difference Considerations |
|
|
189 | (2) |
|
|
191 | (2) |
7 Compositional, Fluid Property, and Phase Behavior Characteristics of Unconventional Reservoir Fluids |
|
193 | (56) |
|
7.1 Significance of Unconventional Reservoir Fluids |
|
|
193 | (2) |
|
7.2 Reservoir Fluids Containing Unusually Large Fractions of Non-hydrocarbon Components |
|
|
195 | (7) |
|
7.2.1 Gaseous Non-hydrocarbons |
|
|
195 | (1) |
|
|
196 | (16) |
|
7.2.2.1 Impact of Association of Hg with Petroleum Reservoir Fluids |
|
|
198 | (4) |
|
7.3 Formation of Solid CO2 and Effect of CO2 on Paraffin Wax |
|
|
202 | (4) |
|
7.4 Compositional Characteristics of Shale Gas and Shale Oil vs. Conventional Reservoir Fluids |
|
|
206 | (6) |
|
7.5 Fluid Property and PVT Characteristics of Fluids Containing Large Proportions of Non-hydrocarbons and Shale-Based Fluids vs. Conventional Fluids |
|
|
212 | (25) |
|
7.5.1 Fluid Phase Behavior of Acid Gases and Their Mixtures with Hydrocarbons |
|
|
212 | (14) |
|
7.5.2 Fluid Phase Behavior and Properties of Shale Reservoirs |
|
|
226 | (11) |
|
7.6 Measurement and EOS Modeling of Unconventional Reservoir Fluids-State of the Art |
|
|
237 | (2) |
|
|
239 | (10) |
8 Porous Media Effects on Phase Behavior of (Unconventional) Petroleum Reservoir Fluids |
|
249 | (26) |
|
8.1 Practical Significance and Implications of Porous Media Effects on Phase Behavior |
|
|
249 | (2) |
|
|
251 | (4) |
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
8.2.2 Pore Size and Pore Size Distribution |
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
8.3 Inclusion of Confinement in Phase Behavior |
|
|
255 | (16) |
|
8.3.1 Capillary Pressure in Flash or Vapor-Liquid Equilibria (VLE) Calculations |
|
|
255 | (6) |
|
8.3.2 Flash or Vapor-Liquid Equilibria (VLE) Calculations using Modified Critical Temperature and Pressure |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
8.3.3 Bubble-Point Calculations for the Methane-n-Butane Binary System Including Capillary Pressure |
|
|
262 | (4) |
|
8.3.4 Correcting Bulk PVT Data for Confinement |
|
|
266 | (5) |
|
8.4 Handling of Porous Media Effects on Phase Behavior in a Compositional Reservoir Simulator |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
|
272 | (3) |
9 Compositional and Phase Behavior Effects in Conventional and Exotic Heavy Oil FOR Processes |
|
275 | (38) |
|
9.1 CO2 Induced Hydrocarbon Liquid-Liquid Phase Split and Phase Behavior Type |
|
|
275 | (3) |
|
9.2 Experimental Observations and EOS Modeling of Hydrocarbon Vapor-Liquid-Liquid or Liquid-Liquid Phase Split |
|
|
278 | (21) |
|
9.2.1 Experimental Observations |
|
|
278 | (11) |
|
9.2.2 Stability Analysis and EOS Modeling |
|
|
289 | (5) |
|
9.2.3 Handling of Multiple Phases in a Compositional Reservoir Simulator |
|
|
294 | (5) |
|
9.3 Practical Significance of CO2 Induced Heavy Oil Phase Behavior |
|
|
299 | (4) |
|
9.4 Compositional Changes in a Heavy Oil in Exotic EOR Processes-Microbial and In Situ Combustion |
|
|
303 | (4) |
|
9.4.1 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) |
|
|
303 | (2) |
|
9.4.2 In Situ Combustion (ISC) |
|
|
305 | (2) |
|
9.5 Case Studies and Recent Advances |
|
|
307 | (2) |
|
|
309 | (4) |
10 Flow Assurance in EOR Design and Operation |
|
313 | (42) |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
|
314 | (17) |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
10.2.2 Phase and Physical Properties |
|
|
314 | (4) |
|
10.2.3 Laboratory Testing and Modeling |
|
|
318 | (13) |
|
10.2.3.1 Deposition Modeling-Wax Composition |
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
10.2.3.2 Deposition Modeling-WAT |
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
10.2.3.3 Deposition-Wax Disappearance Temperature |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
10.2.3.4 Pour Point Temperature |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
10.2.3.5 Rheology-Gelation Temperature |
|
|
321 | (1) |
|
10.2.3.6 Rheology-Viscosity |
|
|
321 | (3) |
|
|
324 | (3) |
|
10.2.3.8 Rheology-Yield Stress |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
10.2.4 Prevention and Mitigation |
|
|
328 | (3) |
|
10.2.4.1 Gelling/Pour Point Management |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
|
331 | (6) |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
10.3.2 Phase and Physical Properties |
|
|
332 | (2) |
|
10.3.3 Laboratory Testing and Modeling |
|
|
334 | (3) |
|
10.3.4 Prevention and Mitigation |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
|
337 | (6) |
|
10.4.1 Phase and Physical Properties |
|
|
338 | (2) |
|
10.4.2 Laboratory Testing and Modeling |
|
|
340 | (2) |
|
10.4.2.1 Hydrate Formation Correlations |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
10.4.2.3 Kobayashi et al. |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
10.4.2.4 Berge Correlation |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
10.4.3 Prevention and Mitigation |
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
|
343 | (9) |
|
10.5.1 Formation of Emulsion |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
10.5.2 Emulsion Stability |
|
|
346 | (2) |
|
10.5.3 Laboratory Studies |
|
|
348 | (2) |
|
|
350 | (7) |
|
10.5.4.1 Reservoir Souring, Corrosion, and Aquathermolysis |
|
|
350 | (2) |
|
|
352 | (3) |
11 EOS and PVT Simulations |
|
355 | (16) |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
11.2 Black Oil and Compositional Models |
|
|
355 | (2) |
|
11.3 PVT Model Validation |
|
|
357 | (6) |
|
11.3.1 Sample Contamination Validation |
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
11.3.2 FOR Injection Considerations |
|
|
361 | (2) |
|
|
363 | (2) |
|
11.5 Impact of PVT Uncertainty on Volume and Recovery Estimations |
|
|
365 | (3) |
|
|
368 | (3) |
12 Empirical Relations for Estimating Fluid Properties |
|
371 | (30) |
|
12.1 Bubble-Point Pressure Correlations |
|
|
372 | (4) |
|
12.1.1 MB Standing Correlation |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
12.1.5 De Ghetto et al. for Heavy Oil and Extra-Heavy Oil |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
12.1.7 Petrosky and Farshad |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
12.1.10 Lasater Bubble-Point Pressure |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
12.1.11 Dew-Point Correlations |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
12.2 Solution Gas Oil Ratio Correlations |
|
|
376 | (2) |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
12.2.7 Petrosky and Farshad |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
12.3 Formation Volume Factor |
|
|
378 | (4) |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
12.3.2 Standing Correlation |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
12.3.6 Petrosky-Farshad Correlation |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
12.3.7 Omar and Todd's Correlation for Malaysian Crudes |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
12.3.9 De Ghetto et al.-Heavy Oil and Extra-Heavy Oil |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
12.3.10 Petrosky and Farshad |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
12.4 Oil Compressibility Correlations |
|
|
382 | (3) |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
12.4.4 Petrosky and Farshad |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
12.5 Viscosity Correlations |
|
|
385 | (4) |
|
12.5.1 Beggs and Robinson |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
12.5.4 Khan et al. (Saudi Arabian Oil) |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
12.5.6 Vasquez-Beggs correlation |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
12.5.7.1 Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
12.5.8 Water Viscosity by Meehan |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
|
389 | (4) |
|
|
389 | (4) |
|
12.7 Minimum Miscibility Pressure |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
12.8 Uncertainty in PVT Data |
|
|
394 | (4) |
|
|
398 | (3) |
Index |
|
401 | |