| Preface |
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xxi | |
| Introduction |
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xxiii | |
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1 A leaf cell consists of several metabolic compartments |
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1 | (42) |
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1.1 The cell wall gives the plant cell mechanical stability |
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4 | (5) |
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The cell wall consists mainly of carbohydrates and proteins |
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4 | (3) |
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Plasmadesmata connect neighboring cells |
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7 | (2) |
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1.2 Vacuoles have multiple functions |
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9 | (2) |
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1.3 Plastids have evolved from cyanobacteria |
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11 | (4) |
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1.4 Mitochondria also result from endosymbionts |
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15 | (2) |
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1.5 Peroxisomes are the site of reactions in which toxic intermediates are formed |
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17 | (1) |
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1.6 The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus form a network for the distribution of biosynthesis products |
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18 | (4) |
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1.7 Functionally intact cell organelles can be isolated from plant cells |
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22 | (2) |
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1.8 Various transport processes facilitate the exchange of metabolites between different compartments |
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24 | (2) |
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1.9 Translocators catalyze the specific transport of metabolic substrates and products |
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26 | (6) |
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Metabolite transport is achieved by a conformational change of the translocator |
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28 | (3) |
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Aquaporins make cell membranes permeable for water |
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31 | (1) |
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1.10 Ion channels have a very high transport capacity |
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32 | (5) |
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1.11 Porins consist of β-sheet structures |
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37 | (6) |
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40 | (3) |
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2 The use of energy from sunlight by photosynthesis is the basis of life on earth |
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43 | (22) |
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2.1 How did photosynthesis start? |
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43 | (2) |
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2.2 Pigments capture energy from sunlight |
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45 | (5) |
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The energy content of light depends on its wavelength |
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45 | (2) |
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Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment |
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47 | (3) |
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2.3 Light absorption excites the chlorophyll molecule |
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50 | (4) |
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2.4 An antenna is required to capture light |
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54 | (11) |
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How is the excitation energy of the photons captured in the antennae and transferred to the reaction centers? |
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56 | (1) |
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The function of an antenna is illustrated by the antenna of photosystem II |
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57 | (3) |
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Phycobilisomes enable cyanobacteria and red algae to carry out photosynthesis even in dim light |
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60 | (4) |
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64 | (1) |
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3 Photosynthesis is an electron transport process |
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65 | (48) |
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3.1 The Photosynthetic machinery is constructed from modules |
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65 | (4) |
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3.2 A reductant and an oxidant are formed during photosynthesis |
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69 | (1) |
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3.3 The basic structure of a photosynthetic reaction center has been resolved by X-ray structure analysis |
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70 | (5) |
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X-ray structure analysis of the photosynthetic reaction center |
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72 | (1) |
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The reaction center of Rhodopseudomonas viridis has a symmetrical structure |
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73 | (2) |
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3.4 How does a reaction center function? |
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75 | (4) |
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3.5 Two photosynthetic reaction centers are arranged in tandem in photosynthesis of algae and plants |
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79 | (3) |
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3.6 Water is split by photosystem II |
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82 | (8) |
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Photosystem II complex is very similar to the reaction center in purple bacteria |
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86 | (2) |
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Mechanized agriculture usually necessitates the use of herbicides |
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88 | (2) |
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3.7 The cytochrome-b6lf complex mediates electron transport between photosystem II and photosystem I |
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90 | (8) |
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Iron atoms in cytochromes and in iron-sulfur centers have a central function as redox carriers |
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90 | (3) |
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The electron transport by the cytochrome-b6lf complex is coupled to a proton transport |
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93 | (3) |
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The number of protons pumped through the cyt-b6lf complex can be doubled by a Q-cycle |
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96 | (2) |
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3.8 Photosystem I reduces NADP+ |
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98 | (4) |
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The light energy driving the cyclic electron transport of PSI is only utilized for the synthesis of ATP |
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101 | (1) |
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3.9 In the absence of other acceptors electrons can be transferred from photosystem I to oxygen |
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102 | (4) |
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3.10 Regulatory processes control the distribution of the captured photons between the two photosystems |
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106 | (7) |
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Excess light energy is eliminated as heat |
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108 | (2) |
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110 | (3) |
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4 ATP is generated by photosynthesis |
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113 | (20) |
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4.1 A proton gradient serves as an energy-rich intermediate state during ATP synthesis |
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114 | (3) |
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4.2 The electron chemical proton gradient can be dissipated by uncouplers to heat |
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117 | (2) |
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The chemiosmotic hypothesis was proved experimentally |
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119 | (1) |
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4.3 H+-ATP synthases from bacteria, chloroplasts, and mitochondria have a common basic structure |
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119 | (6) |
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X-ray structure analysis of the F1 part of ATP synthase yields an insight into the machinery of ATP synthesis |
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123 | (2) |
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4.4 The synthesis of ATP is effected by a conformation change of the protein |
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125 | (8) |
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In photosynthetic electron transport the stoichiometry between the formation of NADPH and ATP is still a matter of debate |
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128 | (1) |
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H+-ATP synthase of chloroplasts is regulated by light |
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129 | (1) |
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V-ATPase is related to the F-ATP synthase |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (3) |
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5 Mitochondria are the power station of the cell |
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133 | (30) |
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5.1 Biological oxidation is preceded by a degradation of substrates to form bound hydrogen and CO2 |
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133 | (1) |
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5.2 Mitochondria are the sites of cell respiration |
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134 | (2) |
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Mitochondria form a separated metabolic compartment |
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135 | (1) |
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5.3 Degradation of substrates applicable for biological oxidation takes place in the matrix compartment |
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136 | (8) |
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Pyruvate is oxidized by a multienzyme complex |
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136 | (4) |
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Acetate is completely oxidized in the citrate cycle |
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140 | (2) |
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A loss of intermediates of the citrate cycle is replenished by anaplerotic reactions |
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142 | (2) |
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5.4 How much energy can be gained by the oxidation of NADH? |
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144 | (1) |
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5.5 The mitochondrial respiratory chain shares common features with the photosynthetic electron transport chain |
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145 | (6) |
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The complexes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain |
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147 | (4) |
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5.6 Electron transport of the respiratory chain is coupled to the synthesis of ATP via proton transport |
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151 | (4) |
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Mitochondrial proton transport results in the formation of a membrane potential |
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153 | (1) |
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Mitochondrial ATP synthesis serves the energy demand of the cytosol |
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154 | (1) |
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5.7 Plant mitochondria have special metabolic functions |
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155 | (4) |
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Mitochondria can oxidize surplus NADH without forming ATP |
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156 | (2) |
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NADH and NADPH from the cytosol can be oxidized by the respiratory chain of plant mitochondria |
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158 | (1) |
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5.8 Compartmentation of mitochondrial metabolism requires specific membrane translocators |
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159 | (4) |
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160 | (3) |
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6 The Calvin cycle catalyzes photosynthetic CO2 assimilation |
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163 | (30) |
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6.1 CO2 assimilation proceeds via the dark reaction of photosynthesis |
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163 | (3) |
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6.2 Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase catalyses the fixation of CO2 |
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166 | (6) |
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The oxygenation of ribulose bisphosphate: a costly side-reaction |
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168 | (2) |
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Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase: special features |
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170 | (1) |
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Activation of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase |
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170 | (2) |
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6.3 The reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate yields triose phosphate |
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172 | (2) |
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6.4 Ribulose bisphosphate is regenerated from triose phosphate |
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174 | (7) |
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6.5 Beside the reductive pentose phosphate pathway there is also an oxidative pentose phosphate pathway |
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181 | (4) |
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6.6 Reductive and Oxidative pentose phosphate pathways are regulated |
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185 | (8) |
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Reduced thioredoxins transmit the signal "illumination" to the enzymes |
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185 | (2) |
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The thioredoxin modulated activation of chloroplast enzymes releases a built-in blockage |
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187 | (1) |
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Multiple regulatory processes tune the reactions of the reductive pentose phosphate pathway |
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188 | (2) |
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190 | (3) |
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7 Phosphoglycolate formed by the oxygenase activity of RubisCO is recycled in the photorespiratory pathway |
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193 | (18) |
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7.1 Ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate is recovered by recycling 2-phosphoglycolate |
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193 | (6) |
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7.2 The NH4+ released in the photorespiratory pathway is refixed in the chloroplasts |
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199 | (2) |
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7.3 Peroxisomes have to be provided with external reducing equivalents for the reduction of hydroxypyruvate |
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201 | (4) |
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Mitochondria export reducing equivalents via a malate-oxaloacetate shuttle |
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203 | (1) |
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A "malate valve" controls the export of reducing equivalents from the chloroplasts |
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203 | (2) |
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7.4 The peroxisomal matrix is a special compartment for the disposal of toxic products |
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205 | (1) |
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7.5 How high are the costs of the ribulose bisphosphate oxygenase reaction for the plant? |
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206 | (1) |
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7.6 There is no net CO2 fixation at the compensation point |
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207 | (1) |
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7.7 The photorespiratory pathway, although energy-consuming, may also have a useful function for the plant |
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208 | (3) |
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209 | (2) |
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8 Photosynthesis implies the consumption of water |
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211 | (30) |
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8.1 The uptake of CO2 into the leaf is accompanied by an escape of water vapor |
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211 | (2) |
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8.2 Stomata regulate the gas exchange of a leaf |
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213 | (4) |
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8.3 The diffusive flux of CO2 into a plant cell |
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217 | (3) |
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8.4 C4 plants perform CO2 assimilation with less water consumption than C3 plants |
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220 | (13) |
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The CO2 pump in C4 plants |
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221 | (2) |
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C4 metabolism of the NADP-malic enzyme type plants |
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223 | (4) |
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C4 metabolism of the NAD-malic enzyme type |
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227 | (2) |
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C4 metabolism of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase type |
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229 | (2) |
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Kranz-anatomy with its mesophyll and bundle sheath cells is not an obligatory requirement for C4 metabolism |
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231 | (1) |
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Enzymes of C4 metabolism are regulated by light |
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231 | (1) |
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Products of C4 metabolism can be identified by mass spectrometry |
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232 | (1) |
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C4 plants include important crop plants but also many persistent weeds |
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232 | (1) |
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8.5 Crassulacean acid metabolism allows plants to survive even during a very severe water shortage |
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233 | (8) |
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CO2 fixed during the night is stored as malic acid |
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234 | (2) |
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Photosynthesis proceeds with closed stomata |
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236 | (2) |
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C4 as well as CAM metabolism developed several times during evolution |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (3) |
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9 Polysaccharides are storage and transport forms of carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis |
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241 | (32) |
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Starch and sucrose are the main products of CO2 assimilation in many plants |
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242 | (1) |
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9.1 Large quantities of carbohydrate can be stored as starch in the cell |
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242 | (11) |
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Starch is synthesized via ADP-glucose |
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246 | (2) |
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Degradation of starch proceeds in two different ways |
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248 | (3) |
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Surplus of photosynthesis products can be stored temporarily in chloroplasts as starch |
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251 | (2) |
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9.2 Sucrose synthesis takes place in the sytosol |
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253 | (2) |
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9.3 The utilization of the photosynthesis product triose phosphate is strictly regulated |
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255 | (6) |
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Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatase is an entrance valve of the sucrose synthesis pathway |
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255 | (4) |
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Sucrose phosphate synthase is regulated by metabolites and by covalent modification |
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259 | (1) |
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Partitioning of assimilates between sucrose and starch is due to the interplay of several regulatory mechanisms |
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260 | (1) |
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Trehalose is an important signal mediator |
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260 | (1) |
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9.4 In some plants assimilates from the leaves are exported as sugar alcohols or oligosaccharides of the raffinose family |
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261 | (3) |
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9.5 Fructans are deposited as storage compounds in the vacuole |
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264 | (4) |
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9.6 Cellulose is synthesized by enzymes located in the plasma membrane |
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268 | (5) |
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Synthesis of callose is often induced by wounding |
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269 | (1) |
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Cell wall polysaccharides are also synthesized in the Golgi apparatus |
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270 | (1) |
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270 | (3) |
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10 Nitrate assimilation is essential for the synthesis of organic matter |
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273 | (34) |
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10.1 The reduction of nitrate to NH3 proceeds in two reactions |
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274 | (6) |
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Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the cytosol |
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276 | (1) |
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The reduction of nitrite to ammonia proceeds in the plastids |
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277 | (1) |
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The fixation of NH4+ proceeds in the same way as in the photorespiratory cycle |
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278 | (2) |
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10.2 Nitrate assimilation also takes place in the roots |
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280 | (2) |
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The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway in leucoplasts provides reducing equivalents for nitrite reduction |
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280 | (2) |
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10.3 Nitrate assimilation is strictly controlled |
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282 | (4) |
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The synthesis of the nitrate reductase protein is regulated at the level of gene expression |
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283 | (1) |
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Nitrate reductase is also regulated by reversible covalent modification |
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283 | (1) |
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14-3-3 proteins are important metabolic regulators |
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284 | (1) |
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There are great similarities between the regulation of nitrate reductase and sucrose phosphate synthase |
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285 | (1) |
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10.4 The end product of nitrate assimilation is a whole spectrum of amino acids |
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286 | (14) |
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CO2 assimilation provides the carbon skeletons to synthesize the end products of nitrate assimilation |
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286 | (2) |
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The synthesis of glutamate requires the participation of mitochondrial metabolism |
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288 | (1) |
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Biosynthesis of proline and arginine |
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289 | (2) |
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Aspartate is the precursor of five amino acids |
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291 | (2) |
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Acetolactate synthase participates in the synthesis of hydrophobic amino acids |
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293 | (4) |
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Aromatic amino acids are synthesized via the shikimate pathway |
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297 | (1) |
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Glyphosate acts as a herbicide |
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297 | (2) |
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A large proportion of the total plant matter can be formed by the shikimate pathway |
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299 | (1) |
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10.5 Glutamate is precursor for chlorophylls and cytochromes |
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300 | (7) |
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Protophorhyrin is also precursor for heme synthesis |
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302 | (2) |
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304 | (3) |
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11 Nitrogen fixation enables plants to use the nitrogen of the air for growth |
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307 | (16) |
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11.1 Legumes form a symbiosis with nodule-forming bacteria |
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308 | (8) |
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The nodule formation relies on a balanced interplay of bacterial and plant gene expression |
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311 | (1) |
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Metabolic products are exchanged between bacteroids and host cells |
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311 | (2) |
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Dinitrogenase reductase delivers electrons for the dinitrogenase reaction |
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313 | (1) |
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N2 as well as H+ are reduced by dinitrogenase |
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314 | (2) |
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11.2 N2 fixation can proceed only at very low oxygen concentrations |
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316 | (2) |
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11.3 The energy costs for utilizing N2 as a nitrogen source are much higher than for the utilization of NO3 |
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318 | (1) |
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11.4 Plants improve their nutrition by symbiosis with fungi |
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318 | (2) |
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The arbuscular mycorrhiza is widespread |
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319 | (1) |
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Ectomycorrhiza supply trees with nutrients |
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320 | (1) |
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11.5 Root nodule symbioses may have evolved from a pre-existing pathway for the formation of arbuscular mycorrhiza |
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320 | (3) |
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321 | (2) |
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12 Sulfate assimilation enables the synthesis of sulfur containing compounds |
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323 | (14) |
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12.1 Sulfate assimilation proceeds primarily by photosynthesis |
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323 | (5) |
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Sulfate assimilation has some parallels to nitrogen assimilation |
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324 | (1) |
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Sulfate is activated prior to reduction |
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325 | (1) |
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Sulfite reductase is similar to nitrite reductase |
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326 | (1) |
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H2S is fixed in the amino acid cysteine |
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327 | (1) |
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12.2 Glutathione serves the cell as an antioxidant and is an agent for the detoxification of pollutants |
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328 | (4) |
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Xenobiotics are detoxified by conjugation |
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329 | (1) |
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Phytochelatins protect the plant against heavy metals |
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330 | (2) |
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12.3 Methionine is synthesized from cysteine |
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332 | (2) |
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S-Adenosylmethionine is a universal methylation reagent |
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332 | (2) |
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12.4 Excessive concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the air are toxic for plants |
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334 | (3) |
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335 | (2) |
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13 Phloem transport distributes photoassimilates to the various sites of consumption and storage |
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337 | (12) |
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13.1 There are two modes of phloem loading |
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339 | (2) |
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13.2 Phloem transport proceeds by mass flow |
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341 | (1) |
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13.3 Sink tissues are supplied by phloem unloading |
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342 | (7) |
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Starch is deposited in plastids |
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343 | (1) |
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The glycolysis pathway plays a central role in the utilization of carbohydrates |
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343 | (5) |
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348 | (1) |
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14 Products of nitrate assimilation are deposited in plants as storage proteins |
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349 | (10) |
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14.1 Globulins are the most abundant storage proteins |
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350 | (1) |
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14.2 Prolamins are formed as storage proteins in grasses |
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351 | (1) |
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14.3 2S-Proteins are present seeds of dicot plants |
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352 | (1) |
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14.4 Special proteins protect seeds from being eaten by animals |
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352 | (1) |
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14.5 Synthesis of the storage proteins occurs at the rough endoplasmic reticulum |
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353 | (3) |
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14.6 Proteinases mobilize the amino acids deposited in storage proteins |
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356 | (3) |
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356 | (3) |
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15 Lipids are membrane constituents and function as carbon stores |
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359 | (40) |
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15.1 Polar lipids are important membrane constituents |
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360 | (6) |
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The fluidity of the membrane is governed by the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids of the content of sterols |
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361 | (2) |
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Membrane lipids contain a variety of hydrophilic head groups |
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363 | (1) |
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Sphingolipids are important constituents of the plasma membrane |
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364 | (2) |
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15.2 Triacylglycerols are storage compounds |
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366 | (2) |
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15.3 The de novo synthesis of fatty acids takes place in the plastids |
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368 | (10) |
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Acetyl CoA is a precursor for the synthesis of fatty acids |
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368 | (3) |
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Acetyle CoA carboxylase is the first enzyme of fatty acid synthesis |
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371 | (2) |
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Further steps of fatty acid synthesis are also catalyzed by a multienzyme complex |
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373 | (2) |
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The first double bond in a newly synthesized fatty acid is formed by a soluble desaturase |
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375 | (3) |
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Acyl ACP synthesized as a product of fatty acid synthesis in the plastids serves two purposes |
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378 | (1) |
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15.4 Glycerol 3-phosphate is a precursor for the synthesis of glycerolipids |
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378 | (6) |
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The ER membrane is the site of fatty acid elongation and desaturation |
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381 | (1) |
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Some of the plastid membrane lipids are synthesized via the eukaryotic pathway |
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382 | (2) |
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15.5 Triacylglycerols are synthesized in the membranes of the endoplasmatic reticulum |
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384 | (4) |
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Plant fat is used for human nutrition and also as a raw material in industry |
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385 | (1) |
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Plant fats are customized by genetic engineering |
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386 | (2) |
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15.6 Storage lipids are mobilized for the production of carbohydrates in the glyoxysomes during seed germination |
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388 | (4) |
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The glyoxylate cycle enables plants to synthesize hexoses from acetyl CoA |
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390 | (2) |
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Reactions with toxic intermediates take place in peroxisomes |
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392 | (6) |
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15.7 Lipoxygenase is involved in the synthesis of oxylipins, which are defense and signal compounds |
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393 | (206) |
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398 | (1) |
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16 Secondary metabolites fulfill specific ecological functions in plants |
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399 | (10) |
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16.1 Secondary metabolites often protect plants from pathogenic microorganisms and herbivores |
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399 | (3) |
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Microorganisms can be pathogens |
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400 | (1) |
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Plants synthesize phytoalexins in response to microbial infection |
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400 | (1) |
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Plant defense compounds can also be a risk for humans |
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401 | (1) |
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16.2 Alkaloids comprise a variety of heterocyclic secondary metabolites |
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402 | (2) |
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16.3 Some plants emit prussic acid when wounded by animals |
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404 | (1) |
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16.4 Some wounded plants emit volatile mustard oils |
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405 | (1) |
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16.5 Plants protect themselves by tricking herbivores with false amino acids |
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406 | (3) |
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407 | (2) |
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17 A large diversity of isoprenoids has multiple functions in plant metabolism |
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409 | (22) |
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17.1 Higher plants have two different synthesis pathways for isoprenoids |
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411 | (3) |
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Acetyl CoA is a precursor for the synthesis of isoprenoids in the cytosol |
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411 | (2) |
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Pyruvate and D-glycerinaldehyde-3-phosphate are the precursors for the synthesis of isopentyl pyrophosphate in plastids |
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413 | (1) |
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17.2 Prenyl transferases catalyze the association of isoprene units |
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414 | (2) |
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17.3 Some plants emit isoprenes into the air |
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416 | (1) |
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17.4 Many aromatic compounds derive from geranyl pyrophosphate |
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417 | (2) |
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17.5 Farnesyl pyrophosphate is the precursor for the synthesis of sesquiterpenes |
|
|
419 | (3) |
|
Steroids are synthesized from farnesyl pyrophosphate |
|
|
420 | (2) |
|
17.6 Geranylegeranyl pyrophosphate is the precursor for defense compounds, phytohormones and carotenoids |
|
|
422 | (2) |
|
Oleoresins protect trees from parasites |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
Carotene synthesis delivers pigments to plants and provides an important vitamin for humans |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
17.7 A prenyl chain renders compounds lipid-soluble |
|
|
424 | (3) |
|
Proteins can be anchored in a membrane by prenylation |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
Dolichols mediate the glucosylation of proteins |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
17.8 The regulation of isoprenoid synthesis |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
17.9 Isoprenoids are very stable and persistent substances |
|
|
427 | (4) |
|
|
|
428 | (3) |
|
18 Phenylpropanoids comprise a multitude of plant secondary metabolites and cell wall components |
|
|
431 | (20) |
|
18.1 Phenylalanine ammonia lyase catalyses the initial reaction of phenylpropanoid metabolism |
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
18.2 Monooxygenases are involved in the synthesis of phenols |
|
|
434 | (2) |
|
18.3 Phenylpropanoid compounds polymerize to macromolecules |
|
|
436 | (6) |
|
Lignans act as defense substances |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Lignin is formed by radical polymerization of phenylpropanoid derivatives |
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
Suberins form gas- and water-impermeable layers between cells |
|
|
440 | (2) |
|
Cutin is a gas- and water-impermeable constituent of the cuticle |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
18.4 The synthesis of flavonoids and stilbenes requires a second aromatic ring derived from acetate residues |
|
|
442 | (2) |
|
Some stilbenes are very potent natural fungicides |
|
|
442 | (2) |
|
18.5 Flavonoids have multiple functions in plants |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
18.6 Anthocyanins are flower pigments and protect plants against excessive light |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
18.7 Tannins bind tightly to proteins and therefore have defense functions |
|
|
447 | (4) |
|
|
|
449 | (2) |
|
19 Multiple signals regulate the growth and development of plant organs and enable their adaptation to environmental conditions |
|
|
451 | (36) |
|
19.1 Signal chains known from animal metabolism also function in plants |
|
|
452 | (8) |
|
G-proteins act as molecular switches |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
Small G-proteins have diverse regulatory functions |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Ca2+ is a component signal transduction chains |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
The phosphoinositol pathway controls the opening of Ca2+ channels |
|
|
455 | (2) |
|
Calmodulin mediates the signal function of Ca2+ ions |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Phosphorylated proteins are components of signal transduction chains |
|
|
458 | (2) |
|
19.2 Phytohormones contain a variety of very different compounds |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
19.3 Auxin stimulates shoot elongation growth |
|
|
461 | (3) |
|
19.4 Gibberellins regulate stem elongation |
|
|
464 | (3) |
|
19.5 Cytokinins stimulate cell division |
|
|
467 | (2) |
|
19.6 Abscisic acid controls the water balance of the plant |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
19.7 Ethylene makes fruit ripen |
|
|
470 | (2) |
|
19.8 Plants also contain steroid and peptide hormones |
|
|
472 | (4) |
|
Brassinosteroids control plant development |
|
|
472 | (2) |
|
Polypeptides function as phytohormones |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
Systemin induces defense against herbivore attack |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
Phytosulfokines regulate cell proliferation |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
A small protein causes the alkalization of cell culture medium |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
Small cysteine-rich proteins regulate self-incompatibility |
|
|
476 | (1) |
|
19.9 Defense reactions are triggered by the interplay of several signals |
|
|
476 | (3) |
|
Salicylic acid and jasmonic acid are signal molecules in pathogen defense |
|
|
477 | (2) |
|
19.10 Light sensors regulate growth and development of plants |
|
|
479 | (8) |
|
Phytochromes function as sensors for red light |
|
|
479 | (3) |
|
Phototropin and cryptochromes are blue light receptors |
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
|
|
483 | (4) |
|
20 A plant cell has three different genomes |
|
|
487 | (40) |
|
20.1 In the nucleus the genetic information is divided among several chromosomes |
|
|
488 | (3) |
|
The DNA sequences of plant nuclear genomes have been analyzed |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
20.2 The DNA of the nuclear genome is transcribed by three specialized RNA polymerases |
|
|
491 | (10) |
|
The transcription of structural genes is regulated |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Promoter and regulatory sequences regulate the transcription of genes |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Transcription factors regulate the transcription of a gene |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
Small (sm)RNAs inhibit gene expression by inactivating messenger RNAs |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
The transcription of structural genes requires a complex transcription apparatus |
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
The formation of the messenger RNA requires processing |
|
|
497 | (4) |
|
rRNA and tRNA are synthesized by RNA polymerase I and III |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
20.3 DNA polymorphism yields genetic markers for plant breeding |
|
|
501 | (7) |
|
Individuals of the same species can be differentiated by restriction fragment lenght polymorphism |
|
|
502 | (3) |
|
The RAPD technique is a simple method for investigating DNA polymorphism |
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
The polymorphism of micro-satellite DNA is used as a genetic marker |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
20.4 Transposable DNA elements roam through the genome |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
20.5 Viruses are present in most plant cells |
|
|
509 | (4) |
|
Retrotransposons are degenerated retroviruses |
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
20.6 Plastids possess a circular genome |
|
|
513 | (4) |
|
The transcription apparatus of the plastids resembles that of bacteria |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
20.7 The mitochondrial genome of plants varies largely in its size |
|
|
517 | (10) |
|
Mitochondrial RNA is corrected after transcription via editing |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
Male sterility of plants caused by the mitochondria is an important tool in hybrid breeding |
|
|
521 | (4) |
|
|
|
525 | (2) |
|
21 Protein biosynthesis occurs in three different locations of a cell |
|
|
527 | (24) |
|
21.1 Protein synthesis is catalyzed by ribosomes |
|
|
528 | (6) |
|
A peptide chain is synthesized |
|
|
529 | (4) |
|
Specific inhibitors of the translation can be used to decide whether a protein is encoded in the nucleus or the genome of plastids or mitochondria |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
The translation is regulated |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
21.2 Proteins attain their three-dimensional structure by controlled folding |
|
|
534 | (6) |
|
The folding of a protein is a multistep process |
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
Proteins are protected during the folding process |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
Heat shock proteins protect against heat damage |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
Chaperones bind to unfolded proteins |
|
|
537 | (3) |
|
21.3 Nuclear encoded proteins are distributed throuthout various cell compartments |
|
|
540 | (7) |
|
Most of the proteins imported into the mitochondria have to cross two membranes |
|
|
540 | (3) |
|
The import of proteins into chloroplasts requires several translocation complexes |
|
|
543 | (3) |
|
Proteins are imported into peroxisomes in the folded state |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
21.4 Proteins are degraded by proteasomes in a strictly controlled manner |
|
|
547 | (4) |
|
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
22 Biotechnology alters plants to meet requirements of agriculture, nutrition and industry |
|
|
551 | (36) |
|
|
|
552 | (10) |
|
A gene library is required for the isolation of a gene |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
A gene library can be kept in phages |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
A gene library can also be propagated in plasmids |
|
|
555 | (2) |
|
A gene library is screened for a certain gene |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
A clone is identified by antibodies which specifically detect the gene product |
|
|
557 | (2) |
|
A clone can also be identified by DNA probes |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
Genes encoding unknown proteins can be functionally assigned by complementation |
|
|
560 | (2) |
|
Genes can be identified with the help of transposons or T-DNA |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
22.2 Agrobacteria can transform plant cells |
|
|
562 | (4) |
|
The Ti-plasmid contains the genetic information for tumor formation |
|
|
564 | (2) |
|
22.3 Ti-plasmids are used as transformation vectors |
|
|
566 | (9) |
|
A new plant is regenerated after the transformation of a leaf cell |
|
|
569 | (2) |
|
Plants can be transformed by a modified shotgun |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
Protoplasts can be transformed by the uptake of DNA |
|
|
571 | (2) |
|
Plastid transformation to generate transgenic plants is advantageous for the environment |
|
|
573 | (2) |
|
22.4 Selected promoters enable the defined expression of a foreign gene |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Gene products are directed into certain subcellular compartments by targeting sequences |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
22.5 Genes can be turned off via plant transformation |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
22.6 Plant genetic engineering can be used for many different purposes |
|
|
578 | (9) |
|
Plants are protected against some insects by the BT protein |
|
|
579 | (2) |
|
Plants can be protected against viruses by gene technology |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
The generation of fungus-resistant plants is still at an early stage |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
Non-selective herbicides can be used as a selective herbicide by the generation of herbicide-resistant plants |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
Plant genetic engineering is used for the improvement of the yield and quality of crop products |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
Genetic engineering is used to produce renewable resources for industry |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
Genetic engineering provides a chance for increasing the protection of crop plants against environmental stress |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
The introduction of transgenic cultivars requires a risk analysis |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
|
|
585 | (2) |
| Index |
|
587 | |
