| Preface |
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v | |
| Acknowledgments |
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vi | |
| Contents in Brief |
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vii | |
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1 | (42) |
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Earth, Cells, and Photosynthesis |
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2 | (5) |
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The earth formed 4.6 billion years ago |
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2 | (2) |
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Photosynthesis evolved by 3.8 billion years ago |
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4 | (1) |
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Oxygen-producing photosynthesis was widespread by 2.2 billion years ago |
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5 | (1) |
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Photosynthetic cyanobacteria produced an oxygen-rich atmosphere |
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6 | (1) |
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Early life on earth evolved in the absence of a protective atmospheric ozone layer |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (5) |
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Photosynthetic eukaryotic cells arose from two endosymbiotic events |
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7 | (1) |
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Several groups of photosynthetic organisms are derived from the endosymbiotic event that gave rise to plastids |
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8 | (2) |
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Fossil evidence indicates that eukaryotic organisms had evolved by 2.7 billion years ago and multicellular organisms by 1.25 billion years ago |
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10 | (1) |
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Animals and algae diversified in the Early Cambrian Period |
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11 | (3) |
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Box 1-1 What DNA Can Reveal about Phylogeny and Evolution |
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14 | |
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12 | (15) |
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Green plants are monophyletic |
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13 | (1) |
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Land plants may be descended from plants related to charophycean (charophyte) algae |
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13 | (2) |
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Microfossils indicate that the first land plants appeared in the Middle Ordovician Period, about 475 million years ago |
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15 | (1) |
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Plant diversity increased in the Silurian and Devonian Periods |
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16 | (1) |
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The number of sporangia distinguishes the first land plants from their evolutionary descendants |
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16 | (2) |
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Increases in plant size were accompanied by evolution of a vascular system |
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18 | (1) |
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Some of the earliest vascular plants were related to extant lycophytes |
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19 | (1) |
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Horsetails, ferns, and seed plants are derived from a leafless group of plants of the Early Devonian Period, 400 million years ago |
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20 | (2) |
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Ferns and horsetails evolved in the Devonian Period |
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22 | (1) |
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Chemical and cellular complexity increased early in the evolution of land plants |
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23 | (1) |
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Atmospheric CO2 and O2 levels are determined by rates of photosynthesis and carbon burial |
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24 | (1) |
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The evolution of land plants was at least partly responsible for the decrease in atmospheric CO2 beginning 450 million years ago |
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25 | (1) |
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The mid-Paleozoic decrease in atmospheric CO2 was a driving force in the evolution of big leaves |
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26 | (1) |
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27 | (6) |
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Seeds contain the genetic products of fertilization protected by tissue derived from the sporophyte |
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28 | (1) |
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Seed plants evolved in the Devonian and diversified in the Permian, 290 to 250 million years ago |
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29 | (1) |
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The sporophyte phase became dominant in the land-plant life cycle in the Devonian Period |
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30 | (3) |
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Five groups of seed plants live on earth today |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (10) |
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Angiosperms appear in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous Period, about 135 million years ago |
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34 | (1) |
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Angiosperms evolved in the tropics and then spread to higher latitudes |
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34 | (1) |
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Amborella trichopoda is sister to all living angiosperms |
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35 | (2) |
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Eudicots are distinguished from other flowering plants by the number of pollen apertures |
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37 | (1) |
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The earliest angiosperm flowers were small with many parts |
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38 | (1) |
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Monocots are a monophyletic group |
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38 | (1) |
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The grass family (Poaceae) evolved about 60 million years ago but diversified more recently |
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39 | (4) |
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43 | (48) |
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The Nuclear Genome: Chromosomes |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (7) |
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Specialized, repetitive DNA sequences are found in the centromeres and telomeres |
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45 | (2) |
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Nuclear genes are transcribed into several types of RNA |
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47 | (2) |
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Plant chromosomes contain many mobile genetic elements |
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49 | (3) |
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52 | (12) |
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Regulatory sequences and transcription factors control where and when a gene is transcribed |
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52 | (5) |
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Gene activity can be regulated by chemical changes in the DNA and proteins of chromatin |
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57 | (2) |
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Chromatin modification can be inherited through cell division |
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59 | (1) |
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Gene function is also controlled at the RNA level |
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60 | (1) |
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Small regulatory RNAs control mRNA function |
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61 | (2) |
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Small RNAs can direct chromatin modification to specific DNA sequences |
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63 | |
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Box 2-1 Transcription Factors: Combinatorial Control |
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53 | (11) |
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64 | (9) |
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The Arabidopsis genome was the first plant genome to be fully sequenced |
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65 | (1) |
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Genome sequences are analyzed to identify individual genes |
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65 | (1) |
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Sequencing of the Arabidopsis genome revealed a complexity similar to that of animal genomes and a large proportion of plant-specific genes |
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66 | (2) |
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Comparisons among plant genomes reveal conserved and divergent features |
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68 | (1) |
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Most angiosperms have undergone genome duplication during their evolution |
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68 | (2) |
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Genes can acquire new functions by duplication and divergence |
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70 | (2) |
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The order of genes is conserved between closely related plant species |
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72 | (1) |
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Genomes and Biotechnology |
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73 | (6) |
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Mutated genes can be localized on the genome by co-segregation with known markers |
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74 | (1) |
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Genes that are mutated by insertion of DNA can be isolated by detecting the inserted sequence |
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74 | (1) |
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Genes can be screened for mutations at the DNA level independent of phenotype |
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75 | (1) |
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RNA interference is an alternative method to knock out gene function |
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76 | (1) |
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Multigenic inheritance is analyzed by mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) |
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77 | (1) |
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Genome sequencing allows the development of methods to monitor the activity of many genes simultaneously |
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78 | (1) |
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79 | (12) |
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Plastids and mitochondria evolved from bacteria engulfed by other cells |
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80 | (1) |
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Organellar genes do not follow Mendel's laws of inheritance |
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80 | (1) |
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The genomes of plastids and mitochondria have been reduced during evolution |
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80 | (1) |
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Most polypeptides in organelles are encoded by the nuclear genome and targeted to the organelles |
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81 | (1) |
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Replication and recombination of plastid DNA is not tightly coupled to cell division |
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82 | (1) |
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Gene expression has common features in plastids and eubacteria |
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82 | (1) |
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Plastids contain two distinct RNA polymerases |
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83 | (1) |
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Post-transcriptional processes are important in regulating plastid gene expression |
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84 | (1) |
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Organellar transcripts undergo RNA editing |
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85 | (1) |
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Post-translational processes contribute to maintaining the correct ratio of nuclear- and plastid-encoded components of multisubunit complexes |
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85 | (1) |
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Developmental regulation of plastid gene expression includes signaling pathways between plastids and the nucleus |
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86 | (5) |
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91 | (76) |
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93 | (9) |
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Transition from one phase of the cell cycle to the next is regulated by a complex set of mechanisms |
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93 | (5) |
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The cell cycle in plants is controlled by developmental and environmental inputs |
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98 | (1) |
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Many differentiating cells undergo endoreduplication: DNA replication without nuclear and cell division |
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99 | |
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95 | (7) |
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102 | (14) |
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The cytoskeleton moves cellular components during cell division |
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102 | (2) |
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A preprophase band forms at the site of the future cell wall |
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104 | (1) |
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Replicated pairs of chromosomes are separated on a spindle of microtubules |
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105 | (1) |
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Microtubules direct the formation of the phragmoplast, which orchestrates deposition of the new cell wall |
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106 | (3) |
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Vesicles carry material from the Golgi apparatus to the newly forming cell wall |
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109 | (3) |
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Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that gives rise to haploid cells and genetic variation |
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112 | |
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103 | (13) |
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116 | (12) |
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Plastids and mitochondria replicate independent of cell division |
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117 | (2) |
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Plastid and mitochondrial biogenesis involves post-translational import of many proteins |
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119 | (3) |
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The endomembrane system delivers proteins to the cell surface and to vacuoles |
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122 | (5) |
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Organelles move around the cell on actin filaments |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (10) |
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The matrix of the cell wall consists of pectins and hemicelluloses |
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129 | (1) |
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Cellulose is synthesized at the cell surface after the cell plate has formed |
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130 | (2) |
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Carbohydrate components of the cell wall interact to form a strong and flexible structure |
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132 | (2) |
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Glycoproteins and enzymes have important functions in the cell wall |
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134 | (1) |
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Plasmodesmata form channels between cells |
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135 | (3) |
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Cell Expansion and Cell Shape |
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138 | (16) |
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The properties of the plasma membrane determine the composition of the cell and mediate its interactions with the environment |
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138 | (1) |
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Proton transport across the plasma membrane generates electrical and proton gradients that drive other transport processes |
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138 | (3) |
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Movement of water across the plasma membrane is facilitated by aquaporins |
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141 | (1) |
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Movement of solutes into the cell vacuole drives cell expansion |
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142 | (2) |
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The vacuole acts as a storage and sequestration compartment |
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144 | (2) |
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Coordinated ion transport and water movement drive stomatal opening |
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146 | (3) |
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The direction of cell expansion is determined by microtubules in the cell cortex |
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149 | (2) |
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Actin filaments direct new material to the cell surface during cell expansion |
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151 | (1) |
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In root hair cells and pollen tubes, cell expansion is localized to the cell tips |
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152 | (2) |
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Secondary Cell Wall and Cuticle |
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154 | (13) |
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The structure and components of the secondary cell wall vary from one cell type to another |
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154 | (1) |
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Lignin is a major component of many secondary cell walls |
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155 | (5) |
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Lignification is a defining characteristic of xylem vessels and tracheids |
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160 | (1) |
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Wood is formed by secondary growth of vascular tissues |
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160 | (3) |
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The cuticle forms a hydrophobic barrier on the aerial parts of the plant |
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163 | (4) |
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167 | (134) |
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Control of Metabolic Pathways |
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169 | (5) |
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Compartmentation increases the potential for metabolic diversity |
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169 | (1) |
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Metabolic processes are coordinated and controlled by regulation of enzyme activities |
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170 | (4) |
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Carbon Assimilation: Photosynthesis |
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174 | (23) |
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Net carbon assimilation occurs in the Calvin cycle |
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175 | (1) |
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Energy for carbon assimilation is generated by light-harvesting processes in the chloroplast thylakoids |
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175 | (2) |
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Light energy is captured by chlorophyll molecules and transferred to reaction centers |
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177 | (3) |
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Electron transfer between two reaction centers via an electron transport chain reduces NADP+ and generates a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane |
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180 | (4) |
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The proton gradient drives the synthesis of ATP by an ATP synthase complex |
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184 | (2) |
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Light-harvesting processes are regulated to maximize the dissipation of excess excitation energy |
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186 | (2) |
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Carbon assimilation and energy supply are coordinated by complex regulation of Calvin cycle enzymes |
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188 | (2) |
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Sucrose synthesis is tightly controlled by the rate of photosynthesis and the demand for carbon by nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant |
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190 | (5) |
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Synthesis of starch allows the photosynthetic rate to remain high when sucrose synthesis is restricted |
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195 | |
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178 | (19) |
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197 | (13) |
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Rubisco can use oxygen instead of carbon dioxide as substrate |
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197 | (3) |
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Photorespiratory metabolism has implications for both the carbon and the nitrogen economy of the leaf |
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200 | (3) |
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C4 plants eliminate photorespiration by a mechanism that concentrates carbon dioxide |
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203 | (7) |
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210 | (7) |
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Sucrose moves to nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant via the phloem |
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210 | (1) |
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Phloem loading may be apoplastic or symplastic |
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210 | (5) |
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The path of sucrose unloading from the phloem depends on the type of plant organ |
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215 | (1) |
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The supply of assimilate from the leaf is coordinated with demand elsewhere in the plant |
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216 | (1) |
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Nonphotosynthetic Generation of Energy and Precursors |
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217 | (16) |
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Interconversion of sucrose and hexose phosphates allows sensitive regulation of sucrose metabolism |
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218 | (2) |
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Glycolysis and the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway generate reducing power, ATP, and precursors for biosynthetic pathways |
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220 | (2) |
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The Krebs cycle and mitochondrial electron transport chains provide the main source of ATP in nonphotosynthesizing cells |
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222 | (8) |
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Partitioning of sucrose among ``metabolic backbone'' pathways is extremely flexible and is related to cell function |
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230 | (3) |
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233 | (20) |
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Sucrose is stored in the vacuole |
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234 | (1) |
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The starch granule is a semi-crystalline structure synthesized by small families of starch synthases and starch-branching enzymes |
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235 | (4) |
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The pathway of starch degradation depends on the type of plant organ |
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239 | (3) |
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Some plants store soluble fructose polymers rather than starch |
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242 | (1) |
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Storage lipids are synthesized from fatty acids in the endoplasmic reticulum |
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242 | (2) |
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The fatty acid composition of storage lipids varies among species |
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244 | (5) |
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Triacylglycerols are converted to sugars by β oxidation and gluconeogenesis |
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249 | (2) |
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Sugars may act as signals that determine the extent of carbon storage |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (17) |
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Plastids exchange specific metabolites with the cytosol via metabolite transporters |
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253 | (3) |
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Fatty acids are synthesized by an enzyme complex in plastids |
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256 | (3) |
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Membrane lipid synthesis in plastids proceeds via a ``prokaryotic'' pathway different from the ``eukaryotic'' pathway elsewhere in the cell |
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259 | (3) |
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Different pathways of terpenoid synthesis in the plastid and the cytosol give rise to different products |
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262 | (3) |
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Tetrapyrroles, the precursors of chlorophyll and heme, are synthesized in plastids |
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265 | (5) |
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270 | (14) |
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Plants contain several types of nitrate transporter, regulated in response to different signals |
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270 | (2) |
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Nitrate reductase activity is regulated at many different levels |
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272 | (2) |
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Assimilation of nitrogen into amino acids is coupled to demand, nitrate availability, and availability of biosynthetic precursors |
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274 | (2) |
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Amino acid biosynthesis is partly controlled by feedback regulation |
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276 | (5) |
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Nitrogen is stored as amino acids and specific storage proteins |
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281 | (3) |
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Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Iron Assimilation |
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284 | (9) |
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The availability of phosphorus is a major limitation on plant growth |
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287 | (1) |
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Sulfur is taken up as sulfate, then reduced to sulfide and assimilated into cysteine |
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288 | (3) |
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Iron uptake requires specialized mechanisms to increase iron solubility in the soil |
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291 | (2) |
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Movement of Water and Minerals |
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293 | (8) |
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Water moves from the soil to the leaves, where it is lost in transpiration |
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293 | (1) |
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Water moves from roots to leaves by a hydraulic mechanism |
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294 | (2) |
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The movement of mineral nutrients in the plant involves both xylem and phloem |
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296 | (5) |
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301 | (76) |
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Overview of Plant Development |
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302 | (4) |
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Multicellularity evolved independently in plants and animals |
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304 | (1) |
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Volvox is a simple system in which to study the genetic basis of multicellularity |
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305 | (1) |
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Embryo and Seed Development |
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306 | (14) |
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External cues establish the apical-basal axis in the Fucus embryo |
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307 | (1) |
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The cell wall directs the fate of cells in the Fucus embryo |
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308 | (1) |
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Embryo development in higher plants occurs within the seed |
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309 | (1) |
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The fate of embryonic cells is defined by their position |
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310 | (2) |
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Progressive polarization of auxin transporters mediates formation of the basal pole in embryos |
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312 | (1) |
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Radial cell pattern in the embryonic root and hypocotyl is defined by the Scarecrow and Short Root transcription factors |
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313 | (1) |
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Clues from apical-basal and radial patterning of the embryo are combined to position the root meristem |
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314 | (1) |
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The shoot meristem is established gradually and independent of the root meristem |
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315 | (1) |
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The endosperm and embryo develop in parallel |
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316 | (1) |
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Division of the cells that give rise to endosperm is repressed until fertilization |
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317 | (2) |
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After embryo and endosperm development, seeds usually become dormant |
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319 | |
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311 | (9) |
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320 | (6) |
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Plant roots evolved independently at least twice |
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321 | (1) |
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Roots have several zones containing cells at successive stages of differentiation |
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321 | (1) |
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The Arabidopsis root has simple cellular organization |
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322 | (1) |
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Cell fate depends on the cell's position in the root |
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323 | (1) |
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Genetic analysis confirms the position-dependent specification of cell type |
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324 | (1) |
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Lateral root development requires auxin |
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325 | |
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Box 5-2 Stem Cells in Plants and Animals |
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323 | (3) |
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326 | (24) |
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Cells in the shoot apical meristem are organized in radial zones and in concentric layers |
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327 | (3) |
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The number of new meristem cells is constantly balanced by the number that form new organs |
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330 | (2) |
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Organ primordia emerge from the flanks of the meristem in a repetitive pattern |
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332 | (1) |
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Changes in gene expression precede primordium emergence |
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333 | (1) |
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Development of compound leaves is associated with expression of meristem genes during early leaf development |
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334 | (1) |
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Leaves are shaped by organized cell division followed by a period of cell expansion and differentiation |
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335 | (1) |
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Different regions of the leaf primordium acquire different fates early in development |
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335 | (2) |
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Specific genes regulate the differences between the two faces of the leaf |
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337 | (1) |
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Lateral growth requires the boundary between the dorsal and ventral sides of the leaf |
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338 | (1) |
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The leaf reaches its final shape and size by regulated cell division and cell expansion |
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339 | (1) |
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Leaf growth is accompanied by development of an increasingly elaborate vascular system, which is controlled by auxin transport |
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340 | (2) |
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Cell communication and oriented cell divisions control the placement of specialized cell types in the leaf |
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342 | (2) |
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Leaf senescence is an active process that retrieves nutrients from leaves at the end of their useful lifespan |
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344 | (2) |
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Branches originate from lateral meristems whose growth is influenced by the apical meristem |
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346 | (1) |
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Internodes grow by cell division and cell elongation, controlled by gibberellins |
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347 | (2) |
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A layer of meristem cells generates vascular tissues and causes secondary thickening of the stem |
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349 | (1) |
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From Vegetative to Reproductive Development |
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350 | (10) |
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Reproductive structures in angiosperms are produced by floral and inflorescence meristems |
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350 | (1) |
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Development of floral meristems is initiated by a conserved regulatory gene |
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351 | (1) |
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The expression pattern of LEAFY-like genes determines inflorescence architecture |
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351 | (2) |
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Flowers vary greatly in appearance, but their basic structure is directed by highly conserved genes |
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353 | (1) |
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In the ABC model of floral organ identity, each type of organ is determined by a specific combination of homeotic genes |
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354 | (3) |
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Floral organ identity genes are conserved throughout the angiosperms |
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357 | (1) |
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Asymmetrical growth of floral organs gives rise to bilaterally symmetrical flowers |
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358 | (1) |
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Additional regulatory genes control later stages of floral organ development |
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358 | (2) |
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From Sporophyte to Gametophyte |
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360 | (17) |
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The male gametophyte is the pollen grain, with a vegetative cell, gametes, and a tough cell wall |
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360 | (2) |
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Pollen development is aided by the surrounding sporophyte tissues |
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362 | (2) |
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The female gametophyte develops in the ovule, which contains gametes for the two fertilization events that form the zygote and the endosperm |
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364 | (1) |
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Development of the female gametophyte is coordinated with development of the sporophyte tissues of the ovule |
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365 | (1) |
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A pollen grain germinates on the carpel and forms a tube that transports the sperm nuclei toward the ovule |
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365 | (1) |
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Growth of the pollen tube is oriented by long-range signals in the carpel tissues and short-range signals produced by the ovule |
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366 | (1) |
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Plants have mechanisms that allow the growth only of pollen tubes carrying specific genes |
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367 | (1) |
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Self-incompatibility can be gametophytic or sporophytic, depending on the origin of the pollen protein recognized |
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367 | (2) |
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Angiosperms have double fertilization |
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369 | (1) |
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Genes from the male and female gametes are not expressed equally after fertilization |
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370 | (1) |
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Some plants can form seeds without fertilization |
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371 | (6) |
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377 | (60) |
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378 | (2) |
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380 | (15) |
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Plant development proceeds along distinct pathways in light and dark |
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380 | (1) |
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Distinct photoreceptors detect light of different wavelengths |
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381 | (1) |
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Phytochromes are converted from an inactive to an active form by exposure to red light |
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382 | (3) |
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Distinct forms of phytochrome have different functions |
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385 | (2) |
|
Phytochrome plays a role in shade avoidance |
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387 | (1) |
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Cryptochromes are blue-light receptors with specific and overlapping functions |
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388 | (2) |
|
Phototropins are blue-light receptors involved in phototropism, stomatal opening, and chloroplast migration |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
Some photoreceptors respond to red and blue light |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Biochemical and genetic studies provide information on the components of the phytochrome signal-transduction pathway |
|
|
392 | (3) |
|
|
|
395 | (12) |
|
Ethylene is synthesized from methionine in a pathway controlled by a family of genes |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
Genetic analysis has identified components of the ethylene signal-transduction pathway |
|
|
396 | (2) |
|
The ethylene response is negatively regulated by binding of ethylene to its receptors |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
Inactivation of CTR1 allows activation of downstream components of the ethylene signaling chain |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
Ethylene interacts with other signaling pathways |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
The light responses of seedlings are repressed in the dark |
|
|
400 | (2) |
|
COP1 and the COP9 signalosome function by destabilizing proteins required for photomorphogenesis |
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
Brassinosteroids are required for repression of photomorphogenesis in the dark and other important functions in plant development |
|
|
403 | (4) |
|
|
|
407 | (22) |
|
Reproductive development in many plants is controlled by photoperiod |
|
|
408 | (2) |
|
Phytochromes and cryptochromes act as light receptors in the photoperiodic control of flowering |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Circadian rhythms control the expression of many plant genes and affect the photoperiodic control of flowering |
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
Circadian rhythms in plants result from input of environmental signals, a central oscillator, and output of rhythmic responses |
|
|
413 | (3) |
|
Substances produced in leaves can promote or inhibit flowering |
|
|
416 | (2) |
|
Similar groups of genes are involved in photoperiodic control of flowering in Arabidopsis and in rice |
|
|
418 | (4) |
|
Vernalization is detected in the apex and controls flowering time in many plants |
|
|
422 | (2) |
|
Genetic variation in the control of flowering may be important in the adaptation of plants to different environments |
|
|
424 | (2) |
|
Vernalization response in Arabidopsis involves modification of histones at the FLC gene, which is also regulated by the autonomous flowering pathway |
|
|
426 | (2) |
|
Photoperiodic and vernalization pathways of Arabidopsis converge to regulate the transcription of a small set of floral integrator genes |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
|
|
429 | (8) |
|
Plant growth is affected by gravitational stimuli |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Statoliths are key to graviperception in stems, hypocotyls, and roots |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
Columella cells of the root cap are the site of graviperception in the growing root |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
The endodermal cell layer is the site of graviperception in growing stems and hypocotyls |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
Mutations in auxin signaling or transport cause defects in root gravitropism |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
The extent of lateral root elongation varies in response to soil nutrient levels |
|
|
432 | (5) |
|
|
|
437 | (136) |
|
|
|
438 | (14) |
|
Photosystem II is highly sensitive to too much light |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
High light induces nonphotochemical quenching, a short-term protective mechanism against photooxidation |
|
|
439 | (4) |
|
Vitamin E-type antioxidants also protect PSII under light stress |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
Photodamage to photosystem II is quickly repaired in light stress-tolerant plants |
|
|
444 | (1) |
|
Some plants, such as winter evergreens, have mechanisms for longer-term protection against light stress |
|
|
445 | (2) |
|
Low light leads to changes in leaf architecture, chloroplast structure and orientation, and life cycle |
|
|
447 | (2) |
|
Ultraviolet irradiation damages DNA and proteins |
|
|
449 | (2) |
|
Resistance to UV light involves the production of specialized plant metabolites, as well as morphological changes |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
|
|
452 | (4) |
|
High temperature induces the production of heat shock proteins |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Molecular chaperones ensure the correct folding of proteins under all conditions |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Families of heat shock proteins play different roles in the heat stress response in different species |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Synthesis of heat shock proteins is controlled at the transcriptional level |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Some plants have developmental adaptations to heat stress |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (16) |
|
Water deficit occurs as a result of drought, salinity, and low temperature |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
Plants use abscisic acid as a signal to induce responses to water deficit |
|
|
457 | (3) |
|
Plants also use ABA-independent signaling pathways to respond to drought |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Abscisic acid regulates stomatal opening to control water loss |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Drought-induced proteins synthesize and transport osmolytes |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
Ion channels and aquaporins are regulated in response to water stress |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Many plant species adopt metabolic specialization under drought stress |
|
|
465 | (2) |
|
Plants that tolerate extreme desiccation have a modified sugar metabolism |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Many plant species adapted to arid conditions have specialized morphology |
|
|
468 | (3) |
|
Rapid life cycling during water availability is common in plants of arid regions |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
|
472 | (7) |
|
Salt stress disrupts homeostasis in water potential and ion distribution |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
Salt stress is signaled by ABA-dependent and ABA-independent pathways |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
Adaptations to salt stress principally involve internal sequestration of salts |
|
|
473 | (3) |
|
Physiological adaptations to salt stress include modulation of guard cell function |
|
|
476 | (1) |
|
Morphological adaptations to salt stress include salt-secreting trichomes and bladders |
|
|
476 | (3) |
|
Osmotic stress stimulates reproduction in some halophytes |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
|
|
479 | (5) |
|
Low temperature is similar to water deficit as an environmental stress |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Temperate plants acclimated by prior exposure to low temperatures are resistant to freezing damage |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
Exposure to low temperatures induces cold-regulated (COR) genes |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
Expression of the transcriptional activator CBF1 induces COR gene expression and cold tolerance |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
Low-temperature signaling involves increases in intracellular calcium |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
ABA-dependent and ABA-independent pathways signal in response to cold |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
Plant species of warm climates are chill-sensitive |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
Vernalization and cold acclimation are closely linked processes in wheat and other cereal crops |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
|
484 | (9) |
|
Water-logging is a cause of hypoxic or anoxic stress for plants |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Hypoxia is signaled by a Rop-mediated signaling pathway involving transient induction of ROS |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Anoxia induces shifts in primary metabolism |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
Aerenchyma facilitates long-distance oxygen transport in flood-tolerant plants |
|
|
488 | (2) |
|
Water-logging is associated with other developmental adaptations that increase plant survival |
|
|
490 | (3) |
|
Plants synthesize oxygen-binding proteins under hypoxic conditions |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
|
|
493 | (6) |
|
Reactive oxygen species are produced during normal metabolism, but also accumulate under a range of environmental stress conditions |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Ascorbate metabolism is central to the elimination of reactive oxygen species |
|
|
494 | (2) |
|
Hydrogen peroxide signals oxidative stress |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Ascorbate metabolism is central to responses to oxidative stress |
|
|
496 | (3) |
|
Interactions with Other Organisms |
|
|
499 | (20) |
|
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
Most pathogens can be classified as biotrophs or necrotrophs |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
Pathogens enter plants via several different routes |
|
|
503 | (3) |
|
Pathogen infections lead to a broad range of disease symptoms |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Many pathogens produce effector molecules that influence their interactions with the host plant |
|
|
507 | (4) |
|
Agrobacterium transfers its DNA (T-DNA) into plant cells to modify plant growth and feed the bacterium, and this transfer system is used in biotechnology |
|
|
511 | (4) |
|
Some pathogen effector molecules are recognized by the plant and trigger defense mechanisms |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
The products of some bacterial avr genes act inside the plant cell |
|
|
516 | (2) |
|
The functions of fungal and oomycete effector molecules are poorly understood |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
|
|
519 | (5) |
|
Parasitic nematodes form intimate associations with host plants |
|
|
519 | (2) |
|
Insects cause extensive losses in crop plants, both directly and by facilitating infection by pathogens |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
Some plants are plant pathogens |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
|
|
524 | (5) |
|
Viruses and viroids are a diverse and sophisticated set of parasites |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Different types of plant viruses have different structures and replication mechanisms |
|
|
525 | (4) |
|
|
|
529 | (28) |
|
Basal defense mechanisms are triggered by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) |
|
|
530 | (4) |
|
R proteins and many other plant proteins involved in defense carry leucine-rich repeats |
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
R genes encode families of proteins involved in recognition and signal transduction |
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
Most R proteins do not directly recognize pathogen effector molecules |
|
|
536 | (2) |
|
R gene polymorphism restricts disease in natural populations |
|
|
538 | (2) |
|
R genes have been selected in crop breeding from the earliest times |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Insensitivity to toxins is important in plant defense against necrotrophs |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Plants synthesize antibiotic compounds that confer resistance to some microbes and herbivores |
|
|
542 | (6) |
|
Disease resistance is often associated with the localized death of plant cells |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
In systemic resistance, plants are ``immunized'' by biological challenges that lead to cell death |
|
|
549 | (3) |
|
Wounding and insect feeding induce complex plant defense mechanisms |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
Chewing insects provoke release of volatile compounds that attract other insects |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
RNA silencing is important in plant resistance to viruses |
|
|
555 | (2) |
|
|
|
557 | (16) |
|
Many plant species are pollinated by animals |
|
|
557 | (3) |
|
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation involves specialized interactions of plants and bacteria |
|
|
560 | (8) |
|
Mycorrhizal fungi form intimate symbioses with plant roots |
|
|
568 | (5) |
|
Domestication and Agriculture |
|
|
573 | (30) |
|
|
|
574 | (9) |
|
The domestication of crop species involved selection by humans |
|
|
574 | (2) |
|
The difference between maize and its wild ancestor, teosinte, can be explained by allelic variation at five different loci |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
Alterations in the expression of the gene teosinte branched played an important role in the domestication of maize |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
The teosinte glume architecture gene regulates glume size and hardness |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Cultivated wheat is polyploid |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
Cauliflower arose through mutation of a meristem-identity gene |
|
|
581 | (2) |
|
Increase in fruit size occurred early in the domestication of tomato |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
Scientific Plant Breeding |
|
|
583 | (10) |
|
Scientific approaches to crop plant improvement have resulted in substantial changes in the genetic structure of many crops |
|
|
583 | (2) |
|
Triticale is a synthetic domesticated crop species |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Disease resistance is an important determinant of yield and can be addressed both by plant breeding and by crop management |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
Mutations in genes affecting fruit color, fruit ripening, and fruit drop have been used in tomato breeding programs |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
In the ``Green Revolution,'' the use of dwarfing mutations of wheat and rice resulted in major increases in crop yield |
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
Heterosis also results in major increases in crop yields |
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
Cytoplasmic male sterility facilitates the production of F1 hybrids |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
|
|
593 | (10) |
|
Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer is a widely used method for generating transgenic plants |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Particle bombardment-mediated gene transfer is an alternative means of generating transgenic plants |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
Herbicide resistance in transgenic crops facilitates weed control |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
Transgenic expression of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crystal protein in crop plants confers insect resistance and increased yield |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Many different crop plant traits can potentially be improved by transgenesis |
|
|
596 | (3) |
|
``The future is green'': The relationship between plants and people will continue to develop |
|
|
599 | (4) |
| Glossary |
|
603 | (28) |
| Figure Acknowledgments |
|
631 | (4) |
| Index |
|
635 | |
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