| Preface |
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v | |
| Learning from this book |
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vii | |
| About the authors |
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x | |
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xxiii | |
| Reviewer acknowledgments |
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xxv | |
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Chapter 1 History and basic concepts |
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1 | (36) |
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The origins of developmental biology |
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3 | (1) |
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1.1 Aristotle first defined the problem of epigenesis versus preformation |
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3 | (1) |
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Box 1A Basic stages of Xenopus laevis development |
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4 | (1) |
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1.2 Cell theory changed how people thought about embryonic development and heredity |
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4 | (2) |
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1.3 Two main types of development were originally proposed |
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6 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 1B The mitotic cell cycle |
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7 | (1) |
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1.4 The discovery of induction showed that one group of cells could determine the development of neighboring cells |
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8 | (1) |
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1.5 Developmental biology emerged from the coming together of genetics and embryology |
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8 | (1) |
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1.6 Development is studied mainly through selected model organisms |
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9 | (2) |
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1.7 The first developmental genes were identified as spontaneous mutations |
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11 | (2) |
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13 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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1.8 Development involves the emergence of pattern, change in form, cell differentiation, and growth |
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14 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 1C Germ layers |
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15 | (2) |
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1.9 Cell behavior provides the link between gene action and developmental processes |
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17 | (1) |
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1.10 Genes control cell behavior by specifying which proteins are made |
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17 | (2) |
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1.11 The expression of developmental genes Is under tight control |
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19 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 1D Visualizing gene expression in embryos |
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20 | (2) |
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1.12 Development is progressive and the fates of cells become determined at different times |
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22 | (2) |
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1.13 Inductive interactions make cells different from each other |
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24 | (2) |
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Cell Biology Box 1E Signal transduction and intracellular signaling pathways |
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26 | (1) |
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1.14 The response to inductive signals depends on the state of the cell |
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26 | (1) |
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1.15 Patterning can involve the interpretation of positional information |
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27 | (1) |
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Medical Box 1F When development goes awry |
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28 | (2) |
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1.16 Lateral inhibition can generate spacing patterns |
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30 | (1) |
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1.17 Localization of cytoplasmic determinants and asymmetric cell division can make daughter cells different from each other |
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30 | (2) |
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1.18 The embryo contains a generative rather than a descriptive program |
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32 | (1) |
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1.19 The reliability of development is achieved by various means |
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32 | (1) |
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1.20 The complexity of embryonic development is due to the complexity of cells themselves |
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33 | (1) |
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1.21 Development is a central element in evolution |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Development of the Drosophila body plan |
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37 | (57) |
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Drosophila life cycle and overall development |
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38 | (1) |
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2.1 The early Drosophila embryo is a multinucleate syncytium |
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38 | (2) |
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2.2 Cellularization is followed by gastrulation and segmentation |
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40 | (1) |
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2.3 After hatching, the Drosophila larva develops through several larval stages, pupates, and then undergoes metamorphosis to become an adult |
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41 | (1) |
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2.4 Many developmental genes were identified in Drosophila through large-scale genetic screening for induced mutations |
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42 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 2A Mutagenesis and genetic screening strategy for identifying developmental mutants in Drosophila |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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2.5 The body axes are set up while the Drosophila embryo Is still a syncytium |
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45 | (1) |
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2.6 Maternal factors set up the body axes and direct the early stage of Drosophila development |
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46 | (1) |
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2.7 Three classes of maternal genes specify the antero-posterior axis |
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47 | (1) |
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2.8 Bicoid protein provides an antero-posterior gradient of a morphogen |
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48 | (2) |
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2.9 The posterior pattern is controlled by the gradients of Nanos and Caudal proteins |
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50 | (1) |
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2.10 The anterior and posterior extremities of the embryo are specified by activation of a cell-surface receptor |
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51 | (1) |
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2.11 The dorso-ventral polarity of the embryo is specified by localization of maternal proteins in the egg vitelline envelope |
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52 | (1) |
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2.12 Positional information along the dorso-ventral axis is provided by the Dorsal protein |
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53 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 2B The Toll signaling pathway: a multifunctional pathway |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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Localization of maternal determinants during oogenesis |
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55 | (1) |
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2.13 The antero-posterior axis of the Drosophila egg is specified by signals from the preceding egg chamber and by interactions of the oocyte with follicle cells |
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56 | (2) |
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Cell Biology Box 2C The JAK-STAT signaling pathway |
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58 | (1) |
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2.14 Localization of maternal mRNAs to either end of the egg depends on the reorganization of the oocyte cytoskeleton |
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58 | (2) |
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2.15 The dorso-ventral axis of the egg is specified by movement of the oocyte nucleus followed by signaling between oocyte and follicle cells |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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Patterning the early embryo |
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62 | (1) |
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2.16 The expression of zygotic genes along the dorso-ventral axis is controlled by Dorsal protein |
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62 | (2) |
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2.17 The Decapentaplegic protein acts as a morphogen to pattern the dorsal region |
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64 | (2) |
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2.18 The antero-posterior axis is divided up into broad regions by gap gene expression |
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66 | (1) |
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2.19 Bicoid protein provides a positional signal for the anterior expression of zygotic hunchback |
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67 | (1) |
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2.20 The gradient in Hunchback protein activates and represses other gap genes |
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68 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 2D Targeted gene expression and misexpression screening |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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Activation of the pair-rule genes and the establishment of parasegments |
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71 | (1) |
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2.21 Parasegments are delimited by expression of pair-rule genes in a periodic pattern |
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71 | (2) |
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2.22 Cap gene activity positions stripes of pair-rule gene expression |
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73 | (2) |
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75 | (1) |
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Segmentation genes and segment patterning |
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75 | (1) |
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2.23 Expression of the engrailed gene defines the boundary of a parasegment, which is also a boundary of cell lineage restriction |
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76 | (1) |
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2.24 Segmentation genes stabilize parasegment boundaries |
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77 | (1) |
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2.25 Signals generated at the parasegment boundary delimit and pattern the future segments |
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78 | (2) |
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Cell Biology Box 2E The Hedgehog signaling pathway |
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80 | (1) |
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Experimental Sox 2F Mutants in denticle pattern provided clues to the logic of segment patterning |
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81 | (2) |
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83 | (1) |
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Specification of segment identity |
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83 | (1) |
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2.26 Segment identity in Drosophila is specified by Hox genes |
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84 | (1) |
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2.27 Homeotic selector genes of the bithorax complex are responsible for diversification of the posterior segments |
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85 | (1) |
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2.28 The Antennapedia complex controls specification of anterior regions |
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86 | (1) |
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2.29 The order of Hox gene expression corresponds to the order of genes along the chromosome |
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87 | (1) |
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2.30 The Drosophila head region is specified by genes other than the Hox genes |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (5) |
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Chapter 3 Vertebrate development I: life cycles and experimental techniques |
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94 | (48) |
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Vertebrate life cycles and outlines of development |
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95 | (3) |
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3.1 The frog Xenopus laevis is the model amphibian for studying development of the body plan |
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98 | (4) |
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3.2 The zebrafish embryo develops around a large mass of yolk |
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102 | (3) |
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3.3 Birds and mammals resemble each other and differ from Xenopus in some important features of early development |
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105 | (1) |
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3.4 The early chicken embryo develops as a flat disc of cells overlying a massive yolk |
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106 | (4) |
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3.5 The mouse egg has no yolk and early development involves the allocation of cells to form the placenta and extra-embryonic membranes |
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110 | (5) |
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Experimental approaches to studying vertebrate development |
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115 | (1) |
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3.6 Gene expression in embryos can be mapped by in situ nucleic acid hybridization |
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116 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 3A Gene-expression profiling by DNA microarrays and RNA seq |
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117 | (1) |
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3.7 Fate mapping and lineage tracing reveal which cells in which parts of the early embryo give rise to particular adult structures |
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118 | (2) |
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3.8 Not all techniques are equally applicable to all vertebrates |
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120 | (1) |
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3.9 Developmental genes can be identified by spontaneous mutation and by large-scale mutagenesis screens |
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121 | (2) |
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Experimental Box 3B Large-scale mutagenesis screens for recessive mutations in zebrafish |
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123 | (1) |
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3.10 Transgenic techniques enable animals to be produced with mutations in specific genes |
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124 | (3) |
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Experimental Box 3C The Cre/IoxP system: a strategy for making gene knock-outs in mice |
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127 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 3D The CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing system |
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128 | (2) |
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3.11 Gene function can also be tested by transient transgenesis and gene silencing |
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130 | (1) |
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Human embryonic development |
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131 | (1) |
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3.12 The early development of a human embryo is similar to that of the mouse |
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131 | (3) |
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Medical Box 3E Preimplantation genetic diagnosis |
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134 | (1) |
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3.13 The timing of formation and the anatomy of the human placenta differs from that in the mouse |
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135 | (1) |
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3.14 Some studies of human development are possible but are subject to strict laws |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (4) |
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Chapter 4 Vertebrate development II: Xenopus and zebrafish |
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142 | (41) |
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143 | (1) |
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4.1 The animal-vegetal axis is maternally determined in Xenopus |
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143 | (2) |
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Cell Biology Box 4A Intercellular protein signals in vertebrate development |
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145 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 4B The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway |
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146 | (1) |
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4.2 Local activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling specifies the future dorsal side of the embryo |
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147 | (2) |
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4.3 Signaling centers develop on the dorsal side of the blastula |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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The origin and specification of the germ layers |
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150 | (1) |
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4.4 The fate map of the Xenopus blastula makes clear the function of gastrulation |
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151 | (1) |
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4.5 Cells of the early Xenopus embryo do not yet have their fates determined and regulation is possible |
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152 | (1) |
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4.6 Endoderm and ectoderm are specified by maternal factors, whereas mesoderm is induced from ectoderm by signals from the vegetal region |
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152 | (3) |
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Cell Biology Box 4C Signaling by members of the TGF-β family of growth factors |
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155 | (1) |
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4.7 Mesoderm induction occurs during a limited period in the blastula stage |
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155 | (1) |
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4.8 Zygotic gene expression is turned on at the mid-blastula transition |
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156 | (1) |
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4.9 Mesoderm-inducing and patterning signals are produced by the vegetal region, the organizer, and the ventral mesoderm |
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157 | (1) |
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4.10 Members of the TGF-β family have been identified as mesoderm inducers |
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158 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 4D Investigating receptor function using dominant-negative proteins |
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159 | (1) |
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4.11 The zygotic expression of mesoderm-inducing and patterning signals is activated by the combined actions of maternal VegT and Wnt signaling |
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159 | (2) |
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4.12 Threshold responses to gradients of signaling proteins are likely to pattern the mesoderm |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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The Spemann organizer and neural induction |
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163 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 4E The fibroblast growth factor signaling pathway |
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163 | (1) |
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4.13 Signals from the organizer pattern the mesoderm dorso-ventrally by antagonizing the effects of ventral signals |
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164 | (1) |
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4.14 The antero-posterior axis of the embryo emerges during gastrulation |
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165 | (3) |
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4.15 The neural plate is induced in the ectoderm |
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168 | (2) |
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4.16 The nervous system is patterned along the antero-posterior axis by signals from the mesoderm |
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170 | (1) |
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4.17 The final body plan emerges by the end of gastrulation and neurulation |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (1) |
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Development of the body plan in zebrafish |
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172 | (1) |
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4.18 The body axes in zebrafish are established by maternal determinants |
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173 | (1) |
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4.19 The germ layers are specified in the zebrafish blastoderm by similar signals to those in Xenopus |
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173 | (3) |
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4.20 The shield In zebrafish is the embryonic organizer |
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176 | (1) |
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Box 4F A zebrafish gene regulatory network |
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176 | (2) |
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178 | (5) |
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Chapter 5 Vertebrate development III: chick and mouse--completing the body plan |
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183 | (52) |
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Development of the body plan in chick and mouse and generation of the spinal cord |
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184 | (1) |
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5.1 The antero-posterior polarity of the chick blastoderm is related to the primitive streak |
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184 | (2) |
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5.2 Early stages in mouse development establish separate cell lineages for the embryo and the extra-embryonic structures |
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186 | (4) |
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5.3 Movement of the anterior visceral endoderm indicates the definitive antero-posterior axis in the mouse embryo |
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190 | (2) |
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5.4 The fate maps of vertebrate embryos are variations on a basic plan |
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192 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 5A Fine-tuning Nodal signaling |
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193 | (2) |
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5.5 Mesoderm induction and patterning in the chick and mouse occurs during primitive streak formation |
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195 | (1) |
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5.6 The node that develops at the anterior end of the streak in chick and mouse embryos is equivalent to the Spemann organizer in Xenopus |
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196 | (2) |
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5.7 Neural induction in chick and mouse is initiated by FGF signaling with inhibition of BMP signaling being required in a later step |
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198 | (3) |
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Cell Biology Box 5B Chromatin-remodeling complexes |
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201 | (1) |
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5.8 Axial structures in chick and mouse are generated from self-renewing cell populations |
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202 | (2) |
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204 | (1) |
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Somite formation and antero-posterior patterning |
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205 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 5C Retinoic acid: a small-molecule intercellular signal |
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206 | (1) |
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5.9 Somites are formed in a well-defined order along the antero-posterior axis |
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206 | (5) |
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Cell Biology Box 5D The Notch signaling pathway |
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211 | (2) |
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5.10 Identity of somites along the antero-posterior axis is specified by Hox gene expression |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (3) |
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5.11 Deletion or overexpression of Hox genes causes changes in axial patterning |
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217 | (2) |
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5.12 Hox gene expression is activated in an anterior to posterior pattern |
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219 | (2) |
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5.13 The fate of somite cells is determined by signals from the adjacent tissues |
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221 | (2) |
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223 | (1) |
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The origin and patterning of neural crest |
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223 | (1) |
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5.14 Neural crest cells arise from the borders of the neural plate and migrate to give rise to a wide range of different cell types |
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223 | (2) |
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5.15 Neural crest cells migrate from the hindbrain to populate the branchial arches |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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Determination of left-right asymmetry |
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227 | (1) |
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5.16 The bilateral symmetry of the early embryo Is broken to produce left-right asymmetry of internal organs |
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227 | (2) |
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5.17 Left-right symmetry breaking may be Initiated within cells of the early embryo |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (5) |
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Chapter 6 Development of nematodes and sea urchins |
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235 | (36) |
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236 | (2) |
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Cell Biology Box 6A Apoptotic pathways in nematodes, Drosophila and mammals |
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238 | (1) |
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6.1 The cell lineage of Caenorhabditis elegans is largely invariant |
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239 | (1) |
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6.2 The antero-posterior axis in Caenorhabditis elegans is determined by asymmetric cell division |
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239 | (2) |
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Experimental Box 6B Gene silencing by antisense RNA and RNA interference |
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241 | (1) |
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6.3 The dorso-ventral axis in Caenorhabditis elegans is determined by cell-cell interactions |
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242 | (3) |
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6.4 Both asymmetric divisions and cell-cell interactions specify cell fate in the early nematode embryo |
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245 | (1) |
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6.5 Cell differentiation in the nematode is closely linked to the pattern of cell division |
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246 | (1) |
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6.6 Hox genes specify positional identity along the antero-posterior axis in Caenorhabditis elegans |
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247 | (1) |
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6.7 The timing of events in nematode development is under genetic control that involves microRNAs |
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248 | (2) |
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Box 6C Gene silencing by microRNAs |
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250 | (1) |
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6.8 Vulval development is initiated through the induction of a small number of cells by short-range signals from a single inducing cell |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (1) |
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6.9 The sea urchin embryo develops into a free-swimming larva |
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255 | (1) |
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6.10 The sea urchin egg is polarized along the animal-vegetal axis |
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256 | (1) |
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6.11 The sea urchin fate map is finely specified, yet considerable regulation Is possible |
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257 | (1) |
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6.12 The vegetal region of the sea urchin embryo acts as an organizer |
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258 | (2) |
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6.13 The sea urchin vegetal region is demarcated by the nuclear accumulation of β-catenin |
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260 | (1) |
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6.14 The animal-vegetal axis and the oral-aboral axis can be considered to correspond to the antero-posterior and dorso-ventral axes of other deuterostomes |
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261 | (1) |
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6.15 The pluteus skeleton develops from the primary mesenchyme |
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262 | (1) |
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6.16 The oral-aboral axis in sea urchins is related to the plane of the first cleavage |
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263 | (1) |
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6.17 The oral ectoderm acts as an organizing region for the oral-aboral axis |
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264 | (1) |
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264 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 6D The gene regulatory network for sea urchin endomesoderm specification |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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267 | (4) |
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Chapter 7 Morphogenesis: change in form in the early embryo |
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271 | (62) |
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273 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 7A Cell-adhesion molecules and cell junctions |
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274 | (1) |
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7.1 Sorting out of dissociated cells demonstrates differences in cell adhesiveness in different tissues |
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275 | (1) |
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7.2 Cadherins can provide adhesive specificity |
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276 | (1) |
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7.3 The activity of the cytoskeleton regulates the mechanical properties of cells and their interactions with each other |
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277 | (1) |
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Cell Biology Box 7B The cytoskeleton, cell-shape change, and cell movement |
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278 | (1) |
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7.4 Transitions of tissues from an epithelial to a mesenchymal state, and vice versa, involve changes in adhesive junctions |
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279 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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Cleavage and formation of the blastula |
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280 | (1) |
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7.5 The orientation of the mitotic spindle determines the plane of cleavage at cell division |
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281 | (2) |
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7.6 The positioning of the spindle within the cell also determines whether daughter cells will be the same or different sizes |
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283 | (2) |
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7.7 Cells become polarized in the sea urchin blastula and the mouse morula |
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285 | (2) |
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7.8 Fluid accumulation as a result of tight-junction formation and ion transport forms the blastocoel of the mammalian blastocyst |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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7.9 Gastrulation in the sea urchin involves an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, cell migration, and invagination of the blastula wall |
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289 | (4) |
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7.10 Mesoderm invagination in Drosophila is due to changes in cell shape controlled by genes that pattern the dorso-ventral axis |
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293 | (2) |
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7.11 Germ-band extension in Drosophila involves myosin-dependent remodeling of cell junctions and cell intercalation |
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295 | (1) |
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7.12 Planar cell polarity confers directionality on a tissue |
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296 | (3) |
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7.13 Gastrulation in amphibians and fish involves involution, epiboly, and convergent extension |
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299 | (3) |
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Box 7C Convergent extension |
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302 | (3) |
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7.14 Xenopus notochord development illustrates the dependence of medio-lateral cell elongation and cell intercalation on a pre-existing antero-posterior polarity |
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305 | (1) |
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7.15 Gastrulation in chick and mouse embryos involves the separation of individual cells from the epiblast and their ingression through the primitive streak |
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306 | (3) |
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309 | (2) |
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311 | (1) |
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7.16 Neural tube formation is driven by changes in cell shape and convergent extension |
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311 | (2) |
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Cell Biology Box 7D Eph receptors and their ephrin ligands |
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313 | (1) |
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Medical Box 7E Neural tube defects |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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Formation of tubes and branching morphogenesis |
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316 | (1) |
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7.17 The Drosophila tracheal system is a prime example of branching morphogenesis |
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316 | (2) |
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7.18 The vertebrate vascular system develops by vasculogenesis followed by sprouting angiogenesis |
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318 | (1) |
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7.19 New blood vessels are formed from pre-existing vessels in angiogenesis |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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7.20 Embryonic neural crest gives rise to a wide range of different cell types |
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321 | (1) |
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7.21 Neural crest migration is controlled by environmental cues |
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321 | (2) |
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7.22 The formation of the lateral-line primordium in fishes is an example of collective cell migration |
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323 | (1) |
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7.23 Body wall closure occurs in Drosophila, Caenorhabditis, mammals, and chick |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (7) |
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Chapter 8 Cell differentiation and stem cells |
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333 | (64) |
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Box 8A Conrad Waddington's `epigenetic landscape' provides a framework for thinking about how cells differentiate |
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335 | (2) |
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The control of gene expression |
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337 | (1) |
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8.1 Control of transcription involves both general and tissue-specific transcriptional regulators |
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338 | (3) |
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8.2 Gene expression is also controlled by epigenetic chemical modifications to DNA and histone proteins that alter chromatin structure |
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341 | (3) |
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Cell Biology Box 8B Epigenetic control of gene expression by chromatin modification |
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344 | (3) |
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8.3 Patterns of gene activity can be inherited by persistence of gene-regulatory proteins or by maintenance of chromatin modifications |
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347 | (1) |
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8.4 Changes In patterns of gene activity during differentiation can be triggered by extracellular signals |
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348 | (1) |
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349 | (1) |
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Cell differentiation and stem cells |
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350 | (1) |
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8.5 Muscle differentiation is determined by the MyoD family of transcription factors |
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350 | (2) |
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8.6 The differentiation of muscle cells involves withdrawal from the cell cycle, but is reversible |
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352 | (2) |
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8.7 All blood cells are derived from multipotent stem cells |
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354 | (3) |
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8.8 Intrinsic and extrinsic changes control differentiation of the hematopoietic lineages |
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357 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 8C Single-cell analysis of cell-fate decisions |
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358 | (3) |
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8.9 Developmentally regulated globin gene expression is controlled by control regions far distant from the coding regions |
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361 | (2) |
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8.10 The epidermis of adult mammalian skin is continually being replaced by derivatives of stem cells |
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363 | (3) |
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Medical Box 8D Treatment of junctional epidermolysis bullosa with skin grown from genetically corrected stem cells |
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366 | (1) |
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8.11 Stem cells use different modes of division to maintain tissues |
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367 | (1) |
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8.12 The lining of the gut is another epithelial tissue that requires continuous renewal |
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368 | (2) |
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8.13 Skeletal muscle and neural cells can be renewed from stem cells in adults |
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370 | (2) |
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8.14 Embryonic stem cells can proliferate and differentiate into many cell types in culture and contribute to normal development in vivo |
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372 | (2) |
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Experimental Box 8E The derivation and culture of mouse embryonic stem cells |
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374 | (1) |
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375 | (1) |
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The plasticity of the differentiated state |
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376 | (1) |
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8.15 Nuclei of differentiated cells can support development |
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376 | (2) |
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8.16 Patterns of gene activity in differentiated cells can be changed by cell fusion |
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378 | (1) |
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8.17 The differentiated state of a cell can change by transdifferentiation |
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379 | (2) |
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8.18 Adult differentiated cells can be reprogrammed to form pluripotent stem cells |
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381 | (1) |
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Experimental Box 8F Induced pluripotent stem cells |
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382 | (1) |
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8.19 Stem cells could be a key to regenerative medicine |
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382 | (4) |
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Experimental Box 8G Stem cells can be cultured in vitro to produce `organoids'-structures that mimic tissues and organs |
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386 | (2) |
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8.20 Various approaches can be used to generate differentiated cells for cell-replacement therapies |
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388 | (3) |
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391 | (6) |
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Chapter 9 Germ cells, fertilization, and sex determination |
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397 | (38) |
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The development of germ cells |
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398 | (1) |
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9.1 Germ cell fate is specified in some embryos by a distinct germplasm in the egg |
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399 | (2) |
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9.2 In mammals germ cells are induced by cell-cell interactions during development |
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401 | (1) |
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9.3 Germ cells migrate from their site of origin to the gonad |
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402 | (1) |
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9.4 Germ cells are guided to their destination by chemical signals |
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403 | (1) |
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9.5 Germ cell differentiation involves a halving of chromosome number by meiosis |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (3) |
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9.6 Oocyte development can involve gene amplification and contributions from other cells |
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408 | (1) |
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9.7 Factors in the cytoplasm maintain the totipotency of the egg |
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408 | (1) |
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9.8 In mammals some genes controlling embryonic growth are `imprinted' |
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409 | (3) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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9.9 Fertilization involves cell-surface interactions between egg and sperm |
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413 | (2) |
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9.10 Changes in the egg plasma membrane and enveloping layers at fertilization block polyspermy |
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415 | (1) |
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9.11 Sperm-egg fusion causes a calcium wave that results in egg activation |
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416 | (2) |
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418 | (1) |
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Determination of the sexual phenotype |
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419 | (1) |
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9.12 The primary sex-determining gene in mammals is on the Y chromosome |
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419 | (1) |
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9.13 Mammalian sexual phenotype is regulated by gonadal hormones |
|
|
420 | (2) |
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9.14 The primary sex-determining factor in Drosophila is the number of X chromosomes and is cell autonomous |
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422 | (2) |
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9.15 Somatic sexual development in Caenorhabditis is determined by the number of X chromosomes |
|
|
424 | (1) |
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9.16 Determination of germ cell sex depends on both genetic constitution and intercellular signals |
|
|
425 | (2) |
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9.17 Various strategies are used for dosage compensation of X-linked genes |
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427 | (2) |
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429 | (2) |
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431 | (4) |
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435 | (70) |
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436 | (1) |
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10.1 Imaginal discs arise from the ectoderm in the early Drosophila embryo |
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437 | (1) |
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10.2 Imaginal discs arise across parasegment boundaries and are patterned by signaling at compartment boundaries |
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438 | (1) |
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10.3 The adult wing emerges at metamorphosis after folding and evagination of the wing imaginal disc |
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439 | (1) |
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10.4 A signaling center at the boundary between anterior and posterior compartments patterns the Drosophila wing disc along the antero-posterior axis |
|
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440 | (3) |
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Box 10A Positional information and morphogen gradients |
|
|
443 | (2) |
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10.5 A signaling center at the boundary between dorsal and ventral compartments patterns the Drosophila wing along the dorso-ventral axis |
|
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445 | (1) |
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10.6 Vestigial is a key regulator of wing development that acts to specify wing identity and control wing growth |
|
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445 | (2) |
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10.7 The Drosophila wing disc is also patterned along the proximo-distal axis |
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|
447 | (1) |
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10.8 The leg disc is patterned in a similar manner to the wing disc, except for the proximo-distal axis |
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448 | (2) |
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10.9 Different imaginal discs can have the same positional values |
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450 | (1) |
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450 | (2) |
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452 | (1) |
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10.10 The vertebrate limb develops from a limb bud and its development illustrates general principles |
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452 | (2) |
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10.11 Genes expressed in the lateral plate mesoderm are involved in specifying limb position, polarity, and identity |
|
|
454 | (4) |
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10.12 The apical ectodermal ridge is required for limb-bud outgrowth and the formation of structures along the proximodistal axis of the limb |
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|
457 | |
|
10.13 Formation and outgrowth of the limb bud involves oriented cell behavior |
|
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458 | (2) |
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10.14 Positional value along the proximo-distal axis of the limb bud is specified by a combination of graded signaling and a timing mechanism |
|
|
460 | (2) |
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10.15 The polarizing region specifies position along the limb's antero-posterior axis |
|
|
462 | (2) |
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10.16 Sonic hedgehog is the polarizing region morphogen |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Medical Box 10B Too many fingers: mutations that affect antero-posterior patterning can cause Polydactyly |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Cell Biology Box 10C Sonic hedgehog signaling and the primary cilium |
|
|
466 | (2) |
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10.17 The dorso-ventral axis of the limb is controlled by the ectoderm |
|
|
468 | (2) |
|
Medical Box 10D Teratogens and the consequences of damage to the developing embryo |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
10.18 Development of the limb is integrated by interactions between signaling centers |
|
|
470 | (2) |
|
10.19 Hox genes have multiple Inputs into the patterning of the limbs |
|
|
472 | (3) |
|
10.20 Self-organization may be involved in the development of the limb |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
Box 10c Reaction-diffusion mechanisms |
|
|
476 | (1) |
|
10.21 Limb muscle is patterned by the connective tissue |
|
|
477 | (1) |
|
10.22 The initial development of cartilage, muscles, and tendons is autonomous |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
10.23 Joint formation involves secreted signals and mechanical stimuli |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
10.24 Separation of the digits is the result of programmed cell death |
|
|
479 | (1) |
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480 | (1) |
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|
|
481 | (1) |
|
10.25 Tooth development involves epithelial-mesenchymal interactions and a homeobox gene code specifies tooth identity |
|
|
482 | (2) |
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|
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484 | (1) |
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|
|
484 | (1) |
|
10.26 The vertebrate lung develops from a bud of endoderm |
|
|
484 | (2) |
|
Medical Box 10F What developmental biology can teach us about breast cancer |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
10.27 Morphogenesis of the lung involves three modes of branching |
|
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488 | (1) |
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|
|
489 | (1) |
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|
489 | (1) |
|
10.28 The development of the vertebrate heart involves morphogenesis and patterning of a mesodermal tube |
|
|
489 | (3) |
|
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
10.29 Development of the vertebrate eye Involves interactions between an extension of the forebrain and the ectoderm of the head |
|
|
493 | (4) |
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|
|
497 | (1) |
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|
497 | (8) |
|
Chapter 11 Development of the nervous system |
|
|
505 | (48) |
|
Specification of cell identity in the nervous system |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
11.1 Initial regionalization of the vertebrate brain involves signals from local organizers |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
11.2 Local signaling centers pattern the brain along the antero-posterior axis |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
11.3 The cerebral cortex is patterned by signals from the anterior neural ridge |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
11.4 The hindbrain is segmented into rhombomeres by boundaries of cell-lineage restriction |
|
|
509 | (3) |
|
11.5 Hox genes provide positional information in the developing hindbrain |
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
11.6 The pattern of differentiation of cells along the dorso-ventral axis of the spinal cord depends on ventral and dorsal signals |
|
|
513 | (2) |
|
11.7 Neuronal subtypes in the ventral spinal cord are specified by the ventral to dorsal gradient of Shh |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
11.8 Spinal cord motor neurons at different dorso-ventral positions project to different trunk and limb muscles |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
11.9 Antero-posterior pattern in the spinal cord is determined in response to secreted signals from the node and adjacent mesoderm |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
The formation and migration of neurons |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
11.10 Neurons in Drosophila arise from proneural clusters |
|
|
519 | (2) |
|
11.11 The development of neurons in Drosophila involves asymmetric cell divisions and timed changes in gene expression |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
11.12 The production of vertebrate neurons involves lateral inhibition, as in Drosophila |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Box 11A Specification of the sensory organs of adult Drosophila |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
11.13 Neurons are formed in the proliferative zone of the vertebrate neural tube and migrate outwards |
|
|
524 | (2) |
|
Experimental Box 11B Timing the birth of cortical neurons |
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
11.14 Many cortical interneurons migrate tangentially |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
11.15 The growth cone controls the path taken by a growing axon |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
Box 11C The development of the neural circuit for the knee-jerk reflex |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
11.16 Motor neuron axons in the chick limb are guided by ephrin-Eph interactions |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
11.17 Axons crossing the midline are both attracted and repelled |
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
11.18 Neurons from the retina make ordered connections with visual centers in the brain |
|
|
535 | (3) |
|
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Synapse formation and refinement |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
11.19 Synapse formation involves reciprocal interactions |
|
|
539 | (3) |
|
11.20 Many motor neurons die during normal development |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Medical Box 11D Autism: a developmental disorder that involves synapse dysfunction |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
11.21 Neuronal cell death and survival involve both intrinsic and extrinsic factors |
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
11.22 The map from eye to brain is refined by neural activity |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (7) |
|
Chapter 12 Growth, post-embryonic development, and regeneration |
|
|
553 | (56) |
|
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
12.1 Tissues can grow by cell proliferation, cell enlargement, or accretion |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
12.2 Cell proliferation is controlled by regulating entry into the cell cycle |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
12.3 Cell division in early development can be controlled by an intrinsic developmental program |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
12.4 Extrinsic signals coordinate cell division, cell growth, and cell death in the developing Drosophila wing |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Cell Biology Box 12A The core Hippo signaling pathways in Drosophila and mammals |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
12.5 Cancer can result from mutations in genes that control cell proliferation |
|
|
560 | (2) |
|
12.6 The relative contributions of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in controlling size differ in different mammalian organs |
|
|
562 | (2) |
|
12.7 Overall body size depends on the extent and the duration of growth |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
12.8 Hormones and growth factors coordinate the growth of different tissues and organs and contribute to determining overall body size |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
12.9 Elongation of the long bones illustrates how growth can be determined by a combination of an intrinsic growth program and extracellular factors |
|
|
566 | (2) |
|
Box 12B Digit length ratio is determined in the embryo |
|
|
568 | (2) |
|
12.10 The amount of nourishment an embryo receives can have profound effects in later life |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
Molting and metamorphosis |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
12.11 Arthropods have to molt in order to grow |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
12.12 Insect body size is determined by the rate and duration of larval growth |
|
|
573 | (2) |
|
12.13 Metamorphosis in amphibians is under hormonal control |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (2) |
|
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
12.14 Regeneration involves repatterning of existing tissues and/or growth of new tissues |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
12.15 Amphibian limb regeneration involves cell dedifferentiation and new growth |
|
|
578 | (2) |
|
Box 12C Regeneration in Hydra |
|
|
580 | (2) |
|
Box 12D Planarian regeneration |
|
|
582 | (3) |
|
12.16 Limb regeneration in amphibians depends on the presence of nerves |
|
|
585 | (2) |
|
12.17 The limb blastema gives rise to structures with positional values distal to the site of amputation |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
587 | (2) |
|
12.18 Retinoic acid can change proximo-distal positional values in regenerating limbs |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
12.19 Mammals can regenerate the tips of the digits |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
12.20 Insect limbs intercalate positional values by both proximo-distal and circumferential growth |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
Box 12c Why can't we regenerate our limbs? |
|
|
592 | (2) |
|
12.21 Heart regeneration in zebrafish involves the resumption of cell division by cardiomyocytes |
|
|
594 | (2) |
|
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
12.22 Genes can alter the timing of senescence |
|
|
598 | (2) |
|
12.23 Cell senescence blocks cell proliferation |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
12.24 Elimination of senescent cells in adult salamanders explains why regenerative ability does not diminish with age |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
|
|
602 | (7) |
|
Chapter 13 Plant development |
|
|
609 | (42) |
|
13.1 The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana has a short life cycle and a small diploid genome |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
13.2 Plant embryos develop through several distinct stages |
|
|
612 | (2) |
|
Box 13A Angiosperm embryogenesis |
|
|
614 | (2) |
|
13.3 Gradients of the signal molecule auxin establish the embryonic apical-basal axis |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
13.4 Plant somatic cells can give rise to embryos and seedlings |
|
|
617 | (2) |
|
13.5 Cell enlargement is a major process in plant growth and morphogenesis |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Experimental Box 13B Plant transformation and genome editing |
|
|
620 | (1) |
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|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
13.6 A meristem contains a small, central zone of self-renewing stem cells |
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
13.7 The size of the stem cell area in the meristem is kept constant by a feedback loop to the organizing center |
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
13.8 The fate of cells from different meristem layers can be changed by changing their position |
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
13.9 A fate map for the embryonic shoot meristem can be deduced using clonal analysis |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
13.10 Meristem development is dependent on signals from other parts of the plant |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
13.11 Gene activity patterns the proximo-distal and adaxial-abaxial axes of leaves developing from the shoot meristem |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
13.12 The regular arrangement of leaves on a stem is generated by regulated auxin transport |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
13.13 The outgrowth of secondary shoots is under hormonal control |
|
|
630 | (3) |
|
13.14 Root tissues are produced from Arabidopsis root apical meristems by a highly stereotyped pattern of cell divisions |
|
|
633 | (2) |
|
13.15 Root hairs are specified by a combination of positional information and lateral inhibition |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
Flower development and control of flowering |
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
13.16 Homeotic genes control organ identity in the flower |
|
|
637 | (2) |
|
Box 13C The basic model for the patterning of the Arabidopsis flower |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
13.17 The Antirrhinum flower is patterned dorso-ventrally, as well as radially |
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
13.18 The internal meristem layer can specify floral meristem patterning |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
13.19 The transition of a shoot meristem to a floral meristem is under environmental and genetic control |
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
Box 13D The circadian clock coordinates plant growth and development |
|
|
643 | (1) |
|
13.20 Vernalization reflects the epigenetic memory of winter |
|
|
643 | (2) |
|
13.21 Most flowering plants are hermaphrodites, but some produce unisexual flowers |
|
|
645 | (1) |
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|
|
646 | (1) |
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|
|
647 | (4) |
|
Chapter 14 Evolution and development |
|
|
651 | (51) |
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|
|
654 | (1) |
|
The evolution of development |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
14.1 Multicellular organisms evolved from single-celled ancestors |
|
|
655 | (2) |
|
14.2 Genomic evidence is throwing lighten the evolution of animals |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
Box 14B The metazoan family tree |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
14.3 How gastrulation evolved is not known |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
14.4 More general characteristics of the body plan develop earlier than specializations |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
14.5 Embryonic structures have acquired new functions during evolution |
|
|
661 | (2) |
|
14.6 Evolution of different types of eyes in different animal groups is an example of parallel evolution |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
The diversification of body plans |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
14.7 Hox gene complexes have evolved through gene duplication |
|
|
665 | (2) |
|
14.8 Differences in Hox gene expression determine the variation in position and type of paired appendages in arthropods |
|
|
667 | (4) |
|
14.9 Changes in Hox gene expression and their target genes contributed to the evolution of the vertebrate axial skeleton |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
14.10 The basic body plan of arthropods and vertebrates is similar, but the dorso-ventral axis is inverted |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
The evolutionary modification of specialized characters |
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
14.11 Limbs evolved from fins |
|
|
674 | (4) |
|
14.12 Limbs have evolved to fulfill different specialized functions |
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
14.13 The evolution of limblessness in snakes is associated with changes in axial gene expression and mutations in a limb-specific enhancer |
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
14.14 Butterfly wing markings have evolved by redeployment of genes previously used for other functions |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
Experimental Box 14C Using CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing techniques to test the functioning of the snake ZRS |
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
14.15 Adaptive evolution within the same species provides a way of studying the developmental basis for evolutionary change |
|
|
684 | (2) |
|
Experimental Box 14D Pelvic reduction in sticklebacks is based on mutations in a gene control region |
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
Changes in the timing of developmental processes |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
14.16 Changes in growth can modify the basic body plan |
|
|
687 | (2) |
|
Box 14C Origins of morphological diversity in dogs |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
14.17 Evolution can be due to changes in the timing of developmental events |
|
|
690 | (2) |
|
14.18 The evolution of life histories has implications for development |
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
Box 14F Long- and short-germ development in insects |
|
|
693 | (2) |
|
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
|
696 | (6) |
| Glossary |
|
702 | (23) |
| Index |
|
725 | |
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