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El. knyga: Produce Contamination Problem: Causes and Solutions

Edited by Karl Matthews (Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, USA)

Formatas: EPUB+DRM
Serija: Food Science and Technology
Išleidimo metai: 15-Feb-2014
Leidėjas: Academic Press Inc
Kalba: eng
ISBN-13: 9780124046863

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Formatas: EPUB+DRM
Serija: Food Science and Technology
Išleidimo metai: 15-Feb-2014
Leidėjas: Academic Press Inc
Kalba: eng
ISBN-13: 9780124046863

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Editors Matthews, Sapers, and Gerba address the problem of produce contamination and its potential solutions in four sections, with new chapters and revisions in the second edition. The first section covers the scope and causes of contamination, including microbe persistence on plants, manure, bioaerosol, irrigation water, and wildlife contamination, as well as identification of contamination sources. Specific contaminated commodities are discussed in part 2, including vegetables, melons, sprouted seeds, tomatoes, tree fruits and nuts, and berries, with specific risk reduction strategies. Part 3 discusses prevention around the point of harvest and the regulatory environment in the US, Europe, Mexico, and Central America. The final section discusses technology for pathogen reduction from conventional washing and sanitizing to high-tech intervention, and concludes with recommendations. Annotation ©2014 Ringgold, Inc., Portland, OR (protoview.com)

Understanding the causes and contributing factors leading to outbreaks of food-borne illness associated with contamination of fresh produce is a worldwide challenge for everyone from the growers of fresh-cut produce through the entire production and delivery process. The premise of The Produce Contamination Problem is that when human pathogen contamination of fresh produce occurs, it is extremely difficult to reduce pathogen levels sufficiently to assure microbiological safety with the currently available technologies. A wiser strategy would be to avoid crop production conditions that result in microbial contamination to start.

These critical, problem-oriented chapters have been written by researchers active in the areas of food safety and microbial contamination during production, harvesting, packing and fresh-cut processing of horticultural crops, and were designed to provide methods of contamination avoidance. Coverage includes policy and practices in the United States, Mexico and Central America, Europe, and Japan.

Addresses food-borne contaminations from a prevention view, providing proactive solutions to the problems
Covers core sources of contamination and methods for identifying those sources
Includes best practice and regulatory information

Recenzijos

"...useful to growers, packers, fresh-cut processers and their suppliers, especially those organisations impacted by outbreaks of foodborne illness." --FST Magazine, November 2014

Daugiau informacijos

Prevent produce contamination before it occurs.

Preface

Contributors

xvii

PART 1 PRODUCE CONTAMINATION: SCOPE AND SOURCES

Chapter 1 Scope of the Produce Contamination Problem

(18)

Introduction

(2)

Produce-associated outbreaks---a new problem?

(1)

Consequences of produce-associated outbreaks

(1)

Key aspects of the produce contamination problem

(5)

Characteristics of produce-associated outbreaks

(4)

Prevalence of produce contamination with human pathogens

(1)

Microbial attachment and survival on produce surfaces

(1)

Potential sources of produce contamination

(2)

Preharvest sources

(1)

Contamination during packing

(1)

Contamination during fresh-cut processing

(1)

Gaps in our understanding of produce contamination

(9)

Current state of knowledge

(1)

What we don't know

(1)

Developing effective interventions

(1)

References

(7)

Chapter 2 Microbial Attachment and Persistence on Plants

(38)

Introduction

(2)

Ecological niches and introduction into the plant environment

(2)

Outbreak investigations reveal sources and persistence of pathogens

(1)

Attachment of pathogens to plant tissue

(3)

The plant surface

(1)

Factors affecting attachment of pathogens to plant tissue

(3)

Biofilm formation on produce surfaces

(1)

Internalization and persistence

(6)

Specific interactions of the pathogens with commodities

(7)

Escherichia coli 0157:H7 and lettuce

(2)

Salmonella and tomatoes

(3)

Salmonella and melons

(1)

Listeria and melons

(1)

Plant defense response to human enteric pathogens

(3)

Conclusion

(13)

References

(12)

Chapter 3 Identification of the Source of Contamination

(26)

Introduction

(1)

Overview: phases of a foodborne outbreak investigation

(4)

Surveillance and detection

(1)

Epidemiologic

(2)

Environmental

(1)

Specifics of environmental investigations

(10)

Traceback investigations

(4)

Regulatory/Enforcement

(1)

Prevention/Research

(1)

Training needs for environmental investigators of retail, food processing facilities, packing sheds, and farms

(1)

Resuming operations

(1)

Farm investigations

(1)

Packinghouse investigations

(2)

Vacuum cooler/hydrocooler investigation

(1)

Fresh-cut produce processor investigations

(1)

Intentional contamination

(1)

Lessons learned

(1)

Recommendations

(4)

References

(2)

Chapter 4 Manure Management

(22)

Introduction

(3)

Manure use on crops

(1)

Survival of pathogens in manure

(5)

Bacteria

(3)

Protozoan and helminthic parasites

(1)

Viruses

(1)

Pastures, lots, and runoff

(2)

Manure treatment technologies

(1)

Composting

(3)

Summary

100

(7)

References

101

(6)

Chapter 5 Bioaerosol Contamination of Produce: Potential Issues from an Unexplored Contaminant Route

107

(16)

Introduction

107

(2)

Aerosols

109

(2)

Potential for crop contamination -- sources of bioaerosols

111

(5)

Spray-irrigation and rain-induced aerosols

111

(3)

Land application of manure/biosolids and CAFO aerosols

114

(2)

Harvesting and mechanical aerosolization

116

(1)

Conclusions

116

(7)

References

117

(6)

Chapter 6 Water Quality

123

(16)

Introduction

123

(1)

Irrigation water

124

(2)

Water quality standards for irrigation water

126

(1)

Occurrence of pathogens in irrigation water

127

(1)

Contamination of produce during irrigation

128

(4)

Survival of pathogens on produce in the field

132

(1)

Other sources

132

(1)

Summary and conclusions

133

(6)

References

134

(5)

Chapter 7 Disease Risks Posed by Wild Birds Associated with Agricultural Landscapes

139

(28)

Introduction

140

(1)

Bird species commonly associated with agriculture

141

(3)

Pigeons

141

(2)

Gulls

143

(1)

Waterfowl

143

(1)

Passerines

143

(1)

Bacterial diseases

144

(4)

Campylobacter

144

(1)

Chlamydia

145

(1)

Escherichia coli

145

(1)

Listeria

146

(1)

Salmonella

147

(1)

Fungal diseases

148

(1)

Aspergillus

148

(1)

Cryptococcus

148

(1)

Histoplasma

148

(1)

Parasitic diseases

149

(2)

Cryptosporidia

149

(1)

Microsporidia

149

(1)

Toxoplasma

150

(1)

Determinating risk and control points

151

(1)

Mitigation options

151

(4)

Summary

155

(12)

References

155

(12)

Chapter 8 Produce Contamination by Other Wildlife

167

(20)

Introduction

167

(2)

Viral pathogens

169

(1)

Bacterial pathogens

170

(4)

Parasitic pathogens

174

(1)

Protozoa

174

(2)

Helminths

176

(1)

Mitigating wildlife--crop interactions

177

(1)

Summary

178

(9)

References

179

(8)

PART 2 COMMODITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MAJOR OUTBREAKS AND RECALLS

Chapter 9 Leafy Vegetables

187

(20)

Introduction

187

(1)

Outbreaks associated with leafy greens

188

(2)

Growing conditions by geographical region: link to outbreaks

190

(1)

Harvesting practices: influence on contamination

191

(1)

Processing practices and product contamination

192

(2)

Handling prior to processing

192

(2)

Washing and sanitizing

194

(7)

Equipment design

194

(1)

Sanitizing agents

195

(1)

Packaging

196

(1)

Interaction of microbes with leafy greens

197

(1)

Plant leaf characteristics

198

(1)

Native flora of leafy greens

198

(1)

Microbe characteristics

199

(1)

Internalization

200

(1)

Influence of cutting on microbial populations

200

(1)

Conclusion

201

(6)

References

202

(5)

Chapter 10 Melons

207

(30)

Introduction

208

(1)

Prevalence of human pathogens in and on melons

208

(1)

Outbreaks of foodborne disease linked to melons

209

(13)

Characteristics of outbreaks

209

(3)

Contributing factors

212

(1)

Impact of regulatory actions

213

(1)

Potential sources and mechanisms of contamination and measures recommended to prevent contamination

214

(1)

Preharvest

215

(3)

Postharvest

218

(2)

Cutting practices

220

(2)

Structural characteristics of melons promoting microbial survival and growth

222

(6)

Current knowledge about growth and survival of pathogens in melons

222

(1)

Cantaloupe netting

223

(1)

Biofilm formation

224

(1)

Microbial infiltration and internalization

225

(1)

Use of antimicrobial treatments to decontaminate melons

225

(3)

Fresh-cut melons

228

(1)

Treatment with antimicrobial agents

228

(1)

Irradiation

228

(1)

Conclusion

229

(8)

References

230

(7)

Chapter 11 Microbiological Safety of Sprouted Seeds: Interventions and Regulations

237

(32)

Introduction

238

(1)

Sprouted seed market structure

239

(1)

Seed production

240

(2)

Alfalfa seed production

240

(1)

Mung bean production

241

(1)

Seed processing

241

(1)

Methods of sprout production

242

(1)

Alfalfa sprouts

242

(1)

Mung bean sprouts

242

(1)

Postharvest handling

242

(1)

Pathogens linked to sprouted seeds

243

(2)

Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli

243

(1)

Salmonella

244

(1)

Outbreaks linked to sprouted seeds

245

(4)

Interactions of pathogens with sprouting seeds

249

(1)

Sources of contamination

250

(1)

Interventions to enhance the microbiological safety of sprouted seeds

251

(7)

Seed screening

251

(1)

Seed disinfection

252

(1)

Alternative seed disinfection methods

253

(1)

Successful seed disinfection approaches

253

(2)

Interventions during sprouting

255

(1)

Irrigation water supplements

256

(1)

Postharvest treatment of sprouts

257

(1)

Spent irrigation water testing

257

(1)

Guidelines to enhance the microbiological safety of sprouted seeds

258

(4)

United States

258

(2)

Canada

260

(1)

Europe

260

(1)

Australia and New Zealand

261

(1)

Conclusions and future directions

262

(7)

References

263

(6)

Chapter 12 Salmonella and Tomatoes

269

(22)

Introduction

269

(5)

What is known about outbreaks and tomato production

273

(1)

How Salmonella contaminates tomato fruit

274

(2)

Sources of Salmonella and other human pathogens in crop production environments

276

(2)

Salmonella in surface waters in U.S. vegetable-producing regions

277

(1)

Salmonella ecology and its implications for produce safety

278

(1)

Interactions between Salmonella and tomatoes: molecular insights

279

(1)

The maturity stage of the tomato fruit affects Salmonella proliferation and its gene expressions

280

(1)

The role of plant genotype in interactions with Salmonella

281

(1)

Interactions of Salmonella with plant-associated bacteria (including plant pathogens) and their implications in produce safety

281

(1)

Prevention of contamination of tomatoes by Salmonella

282

(1)

Research needs

283

(8)

References

284

(7)

Chapter 13 Tree Fruits and Nuts: Outbreaks, Contamination Sources, Prevention, and Remediation

291

(22)

Introduction

291

(1)

Organisms of concern

292

(3)

Outbreaks associated with tree fruits

295

(2)

Outbreaks associated with tree nuts

297

(1)

Routes of contamination

298

(3)

Prevention

301

(1)

Remediation

302

(1)

Conclusions

303

(10)

References

303

(10)

Chapter 14 Berry Contamination: Outbreaks and Contamination Issues

313

(30)

Introduction

313

(3)

The impact of major outbreaks

316

(1)

History of viral contamination of berries

317

(1)

Hepatitis A outbreaks with raspberries and strawberries

318

(1)

Norovirus-associated outbreaks with raspberries

319

(2)

The role of Cyclospora cayetanensis in berry-associated outbreaks

321

(2)

Transmission of Cyclospora oocysts and the role of foods

323

(1)

Bacterial contamination of berries

324

(2)

Contamination reduction strategies

326

(6)

In summary

332

(11)

References

333

(10)

PART 3 CONTAMINATION AVOIDANCE PRE AND POSTHARVEST

Chapter 15 Produce Contamination Issues in Mexico and Central America

343

(22)

Introduction

343

(3)

Sources of contamination

346

(3)

Irrigation water

346

(3)

Runoff

349

(4)

Potential movement of fecal matter during rainy season

349

(1)

Flooding

350

(1)

Inadequate disinfection processes at packinghouses

350

(2)

Conditions for agricultural workers

352

(1)

Prevalence and incidence of bacterial-, viral-, and protozoan-related gastroenteritis

353

(1)

Hygiene facilities

354

(1)

Good Agricultural Practices

355

(2)

Outbreak-related cases in Mexico and Central America

357

(3)

Conclusions

360

(5)

References

361

(4)

Chapter 16 Regulatory Issues in Europe Regarding Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Safety

365

(24)

Introduction

366

(1)

The European Union

367

(2)

Basic facts

367

(1)

The European Free Trade Association and the European Economic Area

367

(1)

European fruit and vegetable production

368

(1)

Fresh produce contamination problems in Europe

369

(4)

Foodborne bacteria of foodborne disease

370

(1)

Parasites

371

(1)

Foodborne human pathogenic virus

371

(1)

Molds and mycotoxins

372

(1)

What do the Europeans do -- European regulations

373

(1)

EU central regulations

373

(1)

European Food Safety Authority

374

(7)

Rapid alert system for food and feed

374

(1)

Hygiene and control rules

375

(3)

Follow-up on the sprout-associated outbreak in 2011

378

(1)

Good handling practices and quality assurance in fruit and vegetable production

378

(1)

Import from countries outside EU and EEA (third countries)

379

(2)

GlobalGAP

381

(1)

Differences from U.S. regulations

381

(1)

Funding of food safety research in Europe

382

(7)

Sources for further information

383

(1)

References

383

(6)

PART 4 TECHNOLOGY FOR REDUCTION OF HUMAN PATHOGENS IN FRESH PRODUCE

Chapter 17 Disinfection of Contaminated Produce with Conventional Washing and Sanitizing Technology

389

(44)

Introduction

390

(1)

Washing and sanitizing agents

391

(2)

Detergent products

391

(1)

Chlorine

391

(2)

Alternatives to chlorine

393

(5)

Electrolyzed water

393

(1)

Aqueous chlorine dioxide and acidified sodium chlorite

394

(1)

Aqueous and gaseous ozone

395

(1)

Peroxyacetic acid

396

(1)

Efficacy of combination of treatments

397

(1)

Other approved sanitizing agents for produce

398

(4)

Hydrogen peroxide

398

(1)

Organic acids

398

(1)

Alkaline products

399

(1)

Iodine

399

(1)

Sanitizing agents for organic crops

400

(1)

Anti-viral treatments

400

(1)

Novel sanitizing agents

401

(1)

Expectations for sanitizing agents

401

(1)

Washing and sanitizing equipment

402

(3)

Types of washers

402

(1)

Application of sanitizing agents

402

(1)

Efficacy of commercial washers

403

(1)

Produce washes for food service and home use

404

(1)

Efficacy of washing and sanitizing methods for problem commodities

405

(9)

Leafy vegetables

405

(4)

Tomatoes

409

(2)

Cantaloupe

411

(1)

Apples

412

(1)

Seeds, sprouts, and nuts

413

(1)

Conclusions

414

(19)

References

415

(18)

Chapter 18 Advanced Technologies for Detection and Elimination of Bacterial Pathogens

433

(18)

Introduction

433

(1)

Detection methods

434

(4)

Immunomagnetic beads and biosensors: separation and concentration

435

(1)

PCR-based methods

436

(1)

Computer/AI optical scanning

437

(1)

Antimicrobial intervention technologies

438

(6)

Cold plasma

439

(2)

Pulsed light

441

(1)

High-pressure processing

442

(1)

Sonication

443

(1)

Biological controls

443

(1)

The challenge of technology development for organic foods

444

(1)

Acknowledgements

445

(6)

References

445

(6)

Chapter 19 Conclusions and Recommendations

451

(6)

Introduction

451

(1)

Sources of contamination

452

(1)

Commodities at risk

453

(1)

Challenges of produce disinfection

454

(1)

Investigating contamination on the farm

454

(1)

Pre-emptive food safety programs

455

(1)

The farm-to-fork approach

456

(1)

Index

457

(12)

Food Science and Technology International Series

469

Karl R. Matthews teaches graduate courses in Microbial Food Safety and Food Biology Fundamentals. He has received several awards, including: Lifetime Achievement Award in Phyllosphere Biology, Amity University; Outstanding service Online Mentor Award, American Society for Microbiology and Endel Karmas Award for Excellence in Teaching. Hes been an editorial board member on several journals and is currently the Editor of the Journal of Food Safety, a position he has occupied since 2004.

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