Preface to the First Edition |
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xv | |
Preface to the Second Edition |
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xix | |
Preface to the Third Edition |
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xxi | |
Acknowledgments |
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xxiii | |
Symbols |
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xxvii | |
Abbreviations |
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xxix | |
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1 | (12) |
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1.1 Annealing of a Deformed Material |
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1 | (3) |
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1.1.1 Outline and Terminology |
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1 | (2) |
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1.1.2 Importance of Annealing |
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3 | (1) |
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1.2 Historical Perspective |
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4 | (5) |
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1.2.1 Early Development of the Subject |
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4 | (2) |
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1.2.2 Selected Key Literature (1952--2003) |
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6 | (3) |
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1.3 Forces, Pressures, and Units |
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9 | (4) |
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1.3.1 Pressure on a Boundary |
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9 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Units and the Magnitude of the Driving Pressure |
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10 | (3) |
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Chapter 2 The Deformed State |
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13 | (68) |
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13 | (2) |
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2.2 The Stored Energy of Cold Work |
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15 | (19) |
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2.2.1 Origin of the Stored Energy |
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15 | (4) |
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2.2.2 Measurements of Overall Stored Energy |
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19 | (4) |
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2.2.3 Relationship Between Stored Energy and Microstructure |
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23 | (11) |
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34 | (3) |
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34 | (2) |
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2.3.2 Deformation of Polycrystals |
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36 | (1) |
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2.4 Cubic Metals that Deform by Slip |
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37 | (9) |
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2.4.1 Hierarchy of Microstructure |
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38 | (2) |
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2.4.2 Evolution of Deformation Microstructure in Cell-forming Metals |
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40 | (6) |
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2.4.3 Noncell-Forming Metals |
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46 | (1) |
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2.5 Cubic Metals That Deform by Slip and Twinning |
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46 | (4) |
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2.5.1 Deformation Twinning |
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48 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Effect of Stacking Fault Energy |
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48 | (2) |
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50 | (3) |
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53 | (3) |
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2.7.1 Structure of Deformation Bands |
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54 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Formation of Deformation Bands |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (2) |
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2.7.4 Conditions Under Which Deformation Bands Form |
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56 | (1) |
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56 | (5) |
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2.8.1 Metals of Medium or High Stacking Fault Energy |
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57 | (1) |
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2.8.2 Metals of Low Stacking Fault Energy |
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58 | (2) |
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2.8.3 Formation of Shear Bands |
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60 | (1) |
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2.8.4 Conditions for Shear Banding |
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60 | (1) |
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2.9 Microstructures of Deformed Two-Phase Alloys |
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61 | (20) |
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2.9.1 Dislocation Distribution in Alloys Containing Deformable Particles |
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63 | (2) |
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2.9.2 Dislocation Distribution in Alloys Containing Nondeformable Particles |
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65 | (6) |
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2.9.3 Dislocation Structures at Individual Particles |
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71 | (2) |
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2.9.4 Deformation Zones at Particles |
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73 | (8) |
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Chapter 3 Deformation Textures |
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81 | (28) |
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81 | (1) |
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3.2 Deformation Textures in Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Metals |
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82 | (7) |
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83 | (2) |
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85 | (4) |
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3.3 Deformation Textures in Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Metals |
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89 | (2) |
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3.4 Deformation Textures in Hexagonal Metals |
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91 | (2) |
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93 | (1) |
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3.6 Factors That Influence Texture Development |
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93 | (5) |
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3.6.1 Rolling Geometry and Friction |
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94 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Deformation Temperature |
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94 | (3) |
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97 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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3.6.5 Second-Phase Particles |
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97 | (1) |
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3.7 Theories of Deformation Texture Development |
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98 | (11) |
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98 | (5) |
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103 | (1) |
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3.7.3 The Texture Transition |
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103 | (6) |
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Chapter 4 The Structure and Energy of Grain Boundaries |
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109 | (36) |
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109 | (1) |
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4.2 Orientation Relationship Between Grains |
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110 | (3) |
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4.3 Low Angle Grain Boundaries |
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113 | (4) |
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114 | (2) |
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4.3.2 Other Low Angle Boundaries |
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116 | (1) |
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4.4 High Angle Grain Boundaries |
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117 | (8) |
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4.4.1 Coincidence Site Lattice (CSL) |
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118 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Structure of High Angle Boundaries |
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119 | (2) |
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4.4.3 Energy of High Angle Boundaries |
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121 | (4) |
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4.5 Topology of Boundaries and Grains |
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125 | (5) |
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4.5.1 Two-Dimensional Microstructures |
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126 | (1) |
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4.5.2 Three-Dimensional Microstructures |
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127 | (2) |
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4.5.3 Grain Boundary Facets |
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129 | (1) |
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4.5.4 Boundary Connectivity |
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130 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
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4.6 Smith--Zener Drag: Interaction of Second-Phase Particles With Boundaries |
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130 | (15) |
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4.6.1 Drag Force Exerted by a Single Particle |
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131 | (4) |
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4.6.2 Drag Pressure From a Distribution of Particles |
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135 | (10) |
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Chapter 5 Mobility and Migration of Boundaries |
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145 | (54) |
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145 | (4) |
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5.1.1 Role of Grain Boundary Migration During Annealing |
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145 | (1) |
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5.1.2 Micromechanisms of Grain Boundary Migration |
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146 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Concept of Grain Boundary Mobility |
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147 | (1) |
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5.1.4 Measuring Grain Boundary Mobilities |
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148 | (1) |
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5.2 Mobility of Low Angle Grain Boundaries |
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149 | (10) |
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5.2.1 Migration of Symmetrical Tilt Boundaries Under Stress |
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149 | (2) |
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5.2.2 General Low Angle Boundaries |
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151 | (8) |
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5.3 Measurements of the Mobility of High Angle Boundaries |
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159 | (21) |
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5.3.1 Effect of Temperature on Grain Boundary Mobility in High Purity Metals |
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159 | (3) |
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5.3.2 Effect of Orientation on Grain Boundary Migration in High Purity Metals |
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162 | (9) |
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5.3.3 Influence of Solutes on Boundary Mobility |
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171 | (6) |
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5.3.4 Effect of Point Defects on Boundary Mobility |
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177 | (3) |
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5.3.5 Scope of Experimental Measurements |
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180 | (1) |
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5.4 Theories of the Mobility of High Angle Grain Boundaries |
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180 | (15) |
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5.4.1 Theories of Grain Boundary Migration in Pure Metals |
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180 | (9) |
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5.4.2 Theories of Grain Boundary Migration in Solid Solutions |
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189 | (6) |
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5.5 Migration of Triple Junctions |
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195 | (4) |
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195 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Importance of Triple Junction Mobility |
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196 | (3) |
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Chapter 6 Recovery After Deformation |
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199 | (46) |
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199 | (3) |
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6.1.1 Occurrence of Recovery |
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199 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Properties Affected by Recovery |
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200 | (2) |
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6.2 Experimental Measurements of Recovery |
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202 | (5) |
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202 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Measurements of Recovery Kinetics |
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204 | (3) |
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6.3 Dislocation Migration and Annihilation During Recovery |
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207 | (8) |
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6.3.1 General Considerations |
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207 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Kinetics of Dipole Annihilation |
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208 | (3) |
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6.3.3 Recovery Kinetics of More Complex Dislocation Structures |
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211 | (4) |
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6.4 Rearrangement of Dislocations Into Stable Arrays |
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215 | (3) |
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215 | (1) |
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215 | (3) |
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218 | (20) |
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6.5.1 Driving Force for Subgrain Growth |
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218 | (1) |
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6.5.2 Experimental Measurements of Subgrain Coarsening |
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219 | (4) |
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6.5.3 Subgrain Growth by Boundary Migration |
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223 | (7) |
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6.5.4 Subgrain Growth by Rotation and Coalescence |
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230 | (8) |
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6.5.5 Recovery Mechanisms and the Nucleation of Recrystallization |
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238 | (1) |
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6.6 Effect of Second-Phase Particles on Recovery |
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238 | (7) |
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6.6.1 Effect of Particles on the Rate of Subgrain Growth |
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239 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Particle-Limited Subgrain Size |
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240 | (5) |
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Chapter 7 Recrystallization of Single-Phase Alloys |
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245 | (60) |
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245 | (6) |
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7.1.1 Quantifying Recrystallization |
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248 | (2) |
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7.1.2 Laws of Recrystallization |
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250 | (1) |
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7.2 Factors Affecting the Rate of Recrystallization |
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251 | (12) |
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252 | (3) |
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255 | (3) |
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7.2.3 Effect of Prior Grain Size |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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7.2.5 Effect of Deformation Temperature and Strain Rate |
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260 | (1) |
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7.2.6 Annealing Conditions |
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261 | (2) |
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7.3 The Formal Kinetics of Primary Recrystallization |
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263 | (7) |
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7.3.1 The Johnson---Mehl---Avrami---Kolmogorov (JMAK) Model |
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263 | (4) |
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7.3.2 Microstructural Path Methodology |
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267 | (3) |
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7.4 Recrystallization Kinetics in Real Materials |
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270 | (10) |
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7.4.1 Nonrandom Spatial Distribution of Nuclei |
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270 | (2) |
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7.4.2 Variation of Growth Rate During Recrystallization |
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272 | (8) |
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7.5 The Recrystallized Microstructure |
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280 | (2) |
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280 | (1) |
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280 | (2) |
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282 | (1) |
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7.6 The "Nucleation" of Recrystallization |
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282 | (15) |
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7.6.1 Classical Nucleation |
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283 | (9) |
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7.6.2 Preformed Nucleus Model |
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292 | (2) |
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294 | (3) |
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297 | (8) |
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297 | (2) |
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7.7.2 Mechanisms of Twin Formation |
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299 | (2) |
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7.7.3 Twin Formation During Recovery |
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301 | (1) |
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7.7.4 Twin Formation During Recrystallization |
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302 | (1) |
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7.7.5 Twin Formation During Grain Growth |
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303 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Recrystallization of Ordered Materials |
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305 | (16) |
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305 | (1) |
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305 | (6) |
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8.2.1 Nature and Stability |
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305 | (2) |
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8.2.2 Deformation of Ordered Materials |
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307 | (2) |
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8.2.3 Microstructures and Deformation Textures |
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309 | (2) |
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8.3 Recovery and Recrystallization of Ordered Materials |
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311 | (6) |
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311 | (4) |
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315 | (2) |
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317 | (1) |
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317 | (2) |
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8.5 Dynamic Recrystallization |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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Chapter 9 Recrystallization of Two-Phase Alloys |
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321 | (40) |
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321 | (1) |
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9.1.1 Particle Parameters |
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322 | (1) |
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9.1.2 Effect of Particles on Deformed Microstructure |
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322 | (1) |
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9.2 Observed Effects of Particles on Recrystallization |
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322 | (8) |
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9.2.1 Effect of the Particle Parameters |
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323 | (4) |
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327 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Effect of Particle Strength |
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327 | (2) |
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9.2.4 Effect of Microstructural Homogenization |
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329 | (1) |
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9.3 Particle-Stimulated Nucleation of Recrystallization |
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330 | (13) |
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331 | (5) |
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9.3.2 Orientations of Grains Produced by PSN |
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336 | (3) |
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339 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Effect of Particle Distribution |
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340 | (1) |
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9.3.5 Effect of PSN on Recrystallized Microstructure |
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341 | (2) |
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9.4 Particle Pinning During Recrystallization (Smith-Zener Drag) |
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343 | (2) |
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9.4.1 Nucleation of Recrystallization |
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343 | (2) |
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9.4.2 Growth During Recrystallization |
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345 | (1) |
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9.5 Bimodal Particle Distributions |
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345 | (1) |
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9.6 Control of Grain Size by Particles |
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346 | (2) |
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9.7 Particulate Metal---Matrix Composites |
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348 | (2) |
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9.8 Interaction of Precipitation and Recrystallization |
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350 | (6) |
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350 | (1) |
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9.8.2 Regime I: Precipitation Before Recrystallization |
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351 | (4) |
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9.8.3 Regime II: Simultaneous Recrystallization and Precipitation |
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355 | (1) |
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9.8.4 Regime III: Recrystallization Before Precipitation |
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356 | (1) |
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9.9 Recrystallization of Duplex Alloys |
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356 | (5) |
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9.9.1 Equilibrium Microstructures |
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357 | (1) |
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9.9.2 Nonequilibrium Microstructures |
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358 | (3) |
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Chapter 10 The Growth and Stability of Cellular Microstructures |
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361 | (14) |
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361 | (1) |
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362 | (4) |
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10.3 Stability of Single-Phase Microstructure |
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366 | (4) |
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10.3.1 Low-Angle Boundaries---Recovery |
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367 | (2) |
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10.3.2 High- and Low-Angle Boundaries---Recrystallization |
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369 | (1) |
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10.3.3 High-Angle Boundaries---Grain Growth |
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369 | (1) |
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10.3.4 Stability of Microstructures after Very Large Strains |
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370 | (1) |
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10.4 Stability of Two-Phase Microstructures |
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370 | (2) |
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372 | (3) |
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Chapter 11 Grain Growth Following Recrystallization |
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375 | (56) |
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375 | (9) |
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11.1.1 Nature and Significance of Grain Growth |
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376 | (1) |
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11.1.2 Factors Affecting Grain Growth |
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377 | (1) |
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11.1.3 Burke and Turnbull Analysis of Grain Growth Kinetics |
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378 | (1) |
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11.1.4 Comparison With Experimentally Measured Kinetics |
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379 | (2) |
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11.1.5 Topological Aspects of Grain Growth |
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381 | (3) |
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11.2 Development of Theories and Models of Grain Growth |
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384 | (13) |
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384 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Early Statistical Theories |
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385 | (2) |
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11.2.3 Incorporation of Topology |
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387 | (4) |
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11.2.4 Deterministic Theories |
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391 | (3) |
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11.2.5 More Recent Theoretical Developments |
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394 | (1) |
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11.2.6 Which Theory Best Accounts for Grain Growth in an Ideal Material? |
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394 | (2) |
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11.2.7 Grain Size Distributions in 3D |
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396 | (1) |
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11.3 Grain Orientation and Texture Effects in Grain Growth |
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397 | (7) |
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397 | (2) |
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11.3.2 Effect of Grain Growth on Grain Boundary Character Distribution |
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399 | (5) |
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11.4 Effect of Second-Phase Particles on Grain Growth |
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404 | (13) |
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11.4.1 Kinetics Under the Influence of Particles |
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404 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Particle-Limited Grain Size |
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405 | (6) |
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11.4.3 Particle Instability During Grain Growth |
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411 | (4) |
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415 | (1) |
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11.4.5 Dragging of Particles by Boundaries |
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415 | (2) |
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11.5 Abnormal Grain Growth (AGG) |
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417 | (14) |
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11.5.1 Phenomenology of AGG |
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417 | (2) |
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11.5.2 Effect of Particles |
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419 | (5) |
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424 | (2) |
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426 | (3) |
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11.5.5 Effect of Prior Deformation |
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429 | (1) |
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11.5.6 Effect of Grain Boundary Complexion Transitions |
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429 | (2) |
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Chapter 12 Recrystallization Textures |
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431 | (38) |
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431 | (1) |
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12.2 The Nature of Recrystallization Textures |
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432 | (13) |
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12.2.1 Recrystallization Textures in fcc Metals |
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432 | (8) |
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12.2.2 Recrystallization Textures in Body-Centered Cubic (bcc) Metals |
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440 | (1) |
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12.2.3 Recrystallization Textures in Hexagonal Metals |
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441 | (1) |
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12.2.4 Recrystallization Textures in Two-Phase Alloys |
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442 | (3) |
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12.3 The Theory of Recrystallization Textures |
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445 | (11) |
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12.3.1 Historical Background |
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445 | (2) |
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447 | (3) |
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12.3.3 Oriented Nucleation |
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450 | (3) |
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12.3.4 Relative Roles of Oriented Nucleation and Oriented Growth |
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453 | (1) |
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454 | (2) |
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12.4 Evolution of Textures During Annealing |
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456 | (13) |
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12.4.1 Cube Texture in fee Metals |
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456 | (4) |
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12.4.2 Recrystallization Textures of Low-Carbon Steels |
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460 | (2) |
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12.4.3 Recrystallization Textures of Two-Phase Alloys |
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462 | (3) |
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12.4.4 Texture Development During Grain Growth |
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465 | (4) |
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Chapter 13 Hot Deformation and Dynamic Restoration |
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469 | (40) |
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469 | (1) |
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470 | (12) |
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13.2.1 Constitutive Relationships |
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470 | (2) |
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13.2.2 Mechanisms of Microstructural Evolution |
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472 | (1) |
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13.2.3 Microstructures Formed During Dynamic Recovery |
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473 | (6) |
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13.2.4 Texture Formation During Hot Deformation |
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479 | (3) |
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13.2.5 Modeling the Evolution of Microstructure |
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482 | (1) |
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13.3 Discontinuous Dynamic Recrystallization |
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482 | (11) |
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13.3.1 Characteristics of Dynamic Recrystallization |
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482 | (1) |
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13.3.2 Nucleation of Dynamic Recrystallization |
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483 | (3) |
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13.3.3 Microstructural Evolution |
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486 | (2) |
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13.3.4 Steady-State Grain Size |
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488 | (2) |
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13.3.5 Flow Stress During Dynamic Recrystallization |
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490 | (1) |
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13.3.6 Dynamic Recrystallization in Single Crystals |
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491 | (1) |
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13.3.7 Dynamic Recrystallization in Two-Phase Alloys |
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492 | (1) |
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13.4 Continuous Dynamic Recrystallization |
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493 | (5) |
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13.4.1 Types of Continuous Dynamic Recrystallization |
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493 | (1) |
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13.4.2 Dynamic Recrystallization by Progressive Lattice Rotation |
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494 | (4) |
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13.5 Dynamic Recrystallization in Minerals |
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498 | (4) |
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13.5.1 Boundary Migration in Minerals |
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499 | (1) |
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13.5.2 Migration and Rotation Recrystallization |
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500 | (2) |
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13.6 Annealing After Hot Deformation |
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502 | (7) |
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502 | (1) |
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13.6.2 Static Recrystallization |
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502 | (2) |
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13.6.3 Metadynamic Recrystallization |
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504 | (1) |
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13.6.4 PSN After Hot Deformation |
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505 | (2) |
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13.6.5 Grain Growth After Hot Working |
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507 | (2) |
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Chapter 14 Continuous Recrystallization During and After Large Strain Deformation |
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509 | (18) |
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509 | (1) |
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14.2 Microstructural Stability After Large Strains |
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510 | (1) |
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14.3 Deformation at Ambient Temperatures |
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511 | (8) |
|
14.3.1 Development of Stable Microstructures by Large Strain Deformation |
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Effect of the Initial Grain Size |
|
|
512 | (3) |
|
14.3.3 Effect of Second-Phase Particles |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
14.3.4 Transition From Discontinuous to Continuous Recrystallization |
|
|
515 | (2) |
|
14.3.5 Mechanism of Continuous Recrystallization in Aluminum |
|
|
517 | (2) |
|
14.4 Deformation at Elevated Temperatures |
|
|
519 | (5) |
|
14.4.1 Geometric Dynamic Recrystallization |
|
|
519 | (2) |
|
14.4.2 Conditions for Geometric Dynamic Recrystallization |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
14.4.3 Grain Size Resulting From Geometric Dynamic Recrystallization |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
14.5 Stability of Micron-Grained Microstructures Against Grain Growth |
|
|
524 | (3) |
|
14.5.1 Single-Phase Alloys |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
|
525 | (2) |
|
Chapter 15 Control of Recrystallization |
|
|
527 | (42) |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
15.2 Processing of Some Industrial Aluminum Alloys |
|
|
527 | (11) |
|
15.2.1 Commercial Purity Aluminum (AA1xxx) |
|
|
527 | (3) |
|
15.2.2 Production of Aluminum Beverage Cans (AA3xxx) |
|
|
530 | (4) |
|
15.2.3 Al---Mg---Si Automotive Sheet (AA6xxx) |
|
|
534 | (4) |
|
15.3 Texture Control in Cold-Rolled and Annealed Sheet Steel |
|
|
538 | (10) |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
|
539 | (3) |
|
15.3.3 Batch-Annealed, Al-Killed, Low-Carbon Forming Steels |
|
|
542 | (4) |
|
15.3.4 Ultra-Low-Carbon Steels |
|
|
546 | (2) |
|
15.3.5 Extra-Low-Carbon, High-Strength Steels |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
15.4 Grain-Oriented, Silicon Steel Sheets |
|
|
548 | (8) |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
15.4.2 Production of Silicon Steel Sheets |
|
|
548 | (4) |
|
15.4.3 Development of the Goss Texture |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
15.4.4 Recent Developments |
|
|
553 | (3) |
|
15.5 Commercial Superplastic Aluminum Alloys |
|
|
556 | (5) |
|
15.5.1 Superplasticity and Microstructure |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
15.5.2 Refinement of Microstructure by Static Recrystallization |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
15.5.3 Refinement of Microstructure by Dynamic Recrystallization |
|
|
558 | (2) |
|
15.5.4 Refinement of Microstructure by ARB |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
15.6 Submicron-Grained Alloys |
|
|
561 | (8) |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
15.6.2 Processing Methods |
|
|
562 | (4) |
|
15.6.3 Properties and Applications of SMG Alloys |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
Chapter 16 Computer Modeling and Simulation of Annealing |
|
|
569 | (36) |
|
|
569 | (3) |
|
16.1.1 Role of Computer Simulation |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
16.1.2 Status of Computer Simulation |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
|
572 | (28) |
|
16.2.1 Monte Carlo (Potts Model) Simulations |
|
|
572 | (8) |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
16.2.3 Molecular Dynamics |
|
|
581 | (2) |
|
16.2.4 Vertex Simulations |
|
|
583 | (8) |
|
16.2.5 Moving Finite Element |
|
|
591 | (3) |
|
16.2.6 Phase Field Method |
|
|
594 | (4) |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
16.2.8 Computer Avrami Models |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
16.2.9 Neural Network Modeling |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
|
600 | (5) |
|
16.3.1 Annealing of "Real" Microstructures |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
16.3.2 Annealing of Computer-Generated Deformation Microstructures |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
16.3.3 Modeling an Industrial Thermomechanical Process |
|
|
602 | (3) |
Texture |
|
605 | (24) |
The Measurement of Recrystallization |
|
629 | (18) |
References |
|
647 | (34) |
Index |
|
681 | |