1 Introduction to Recurrence Relations |
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1 | (18) |
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1.1 Recursive Sequences of Order k |
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2 | (1) |
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1.2 Recurrent Sequences Defined by a Sequence of Functions |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 Systems of Recurrent Sequences |
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3 | (1) |
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1.4 Existence and Uniqueness of the Solution |
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4 | (2) |
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1.5 Recurrent Sequences Arising in Practical Problems |
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6 | (13) |
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1.5.1 Applications in Mathematical Modeling |
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6 | (2) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (2) |
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1.5.6 Iterative Numerical Methods |
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14 | (5) |
2 Basic Recurrent Sequences |
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19 | (66) |
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2.1 First-Order Linear Recurrent Sequences |
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19 | (7) |
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2.2 Second-Order Linear Recurrent Sequences |
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26 | (41) |
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2.2.1 Homogeneous Recurrent Sequences |
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26 | (8) |
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2.2.2 Nonhomogeneous Recurrent Sequences |
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34 | (4) |
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2.2.3 Fibonacci, Lucas, Pell, and Pell-Lucas Numbers |
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38 | (10) |
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2.2.4 The Polynomials Un(x, y) and Vn(x, y) |
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48 | (10) |
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2.2.5 Properties of Fibonacci, Lucas, Pell, and Lucas-Pell Numbers |
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58 | (7) |
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2.2.6 Zeckendorf's Theorem |
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65 | (2) |
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2.3 Homographic Recurrences |
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67 | (18) |
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67 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Homographic Recurrent Sequences |
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68 | (4) |
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2.3.3 Representation Theorems for Homographic Sequences |
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72 | (2) |
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2.3.4 Convergence and Periodicity |
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74 | (3) |
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2.3.5 Homographic Recurrences with Variable Coefficients |
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77 | (8) |
3 Arithmetic and Trigonometric Properties of Some Classical Recurrent Sequences |
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85 | (20) |
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3.1 Arithmetic Properties of Fibonacci and Lucas Sequences |
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85 | (5) |
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3.2 Arithmetic Properties of Pell and Pell-Lucas Numbers |
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90 | (4) |
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3.3 Trigonometric Expressions for the Fibonacci, Lucas, Pell, and Pell-Lucas Numbers |
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94 | (3) |
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3.4 Identities Involving the Resultant of Polynomials |
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97 | (8) |
4 Generating Functions |
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105 | (30) |
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4.1 Ordinary Generating Functions |
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105 | (14) |
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4.1.1 Basic Operations and Examples |
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105 | (8) |
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4.1.2 Generating Functions of Classical Polynomials |
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113 | (2) |
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4.1.3 Generating Functions of Classical Sequences |
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115 | (1) |
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4.1.4 The Explicit Formula for the Fibonacci, Lucas, Pell, and Pell-Lucas Polynomials |
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116 | (2) |
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4.1.5 From Generating Functions to Properties of the Sequence |
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118 | (1) |
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4.2 Exponential Generating Functions |
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119 | (8) |
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4.2.1 Basic Operations and Examples |
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120 | (4) |
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4.2.2 Generating Functions for Polynomials Un and Vn |
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124 | (1) |
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4.2.3 Generating Functions of Classical Polynomials |
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125 | (2) |
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4.2.4 Generating Functions of Classical Sequences |
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127 | (1) |
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4.3 The Cauchy Integral Formula |
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127 | (8) |
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4.3.1 A Useful Version of the Cauchy Integral Formula |
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128 | (2) |
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4.3.2 The Integral Representation of Classical Sequences |
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130 | (5) |
5 More on Second-Order Linear Recurrent Sequences |
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135 | (60) |
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135 | (5) |
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5.1.1 General Sequence Term |
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136 | (1) |
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5.1.2 Ratios of Horadam Sequences |
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137 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Particular Horadam Orbits |
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138 | (2) |
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5.2 Periodicity of Complex Horadam Sequences |
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140 | (7) |
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5.2.1 Geometric Progressions of Complex Argument |
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141 | (2) |
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143 | (2) |
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145 | (2) |
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5.3 The Geometry of Periodic Horadam Orbits |
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147 | (10) |
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5.3.1 Regular Star Polygons |
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148 | (1) |
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148 | (2) |
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5.3.3 Multipartite Graphs |
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150 | (3) |
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5.3.4 Geometric Bounds of Periodic Orbits |
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153 | (1) |
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5.3.5 "Masked" Periodicity |
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154 | (3) |
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5.4 The Enumeration of Periodic Horadam Patterns |
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157 | (9) |
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5.4.1 The Number of Horadam Patterns of Fixed Length |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (3) |
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162 | (2) |
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5.4.4 Computational Complexity |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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5.5 Non-periodic Horadam Orbits |
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166 | (2) |
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167 | (1) |
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5.6 An Atlas of Horadam Patterns |
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168 | (19) |
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5.6.1 Stable Orbits: r1 = r2 = 1 |
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168 | (5) |
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5.6.2 Quasi-Convergent Orbits for 0 < or = to r1 < r2 = 1 |
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173 | (2) |
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5.6.3 Convergent Orbits for 0 < or = to r1 < or = to r2 < 1 |
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175 | (7) |
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5.6.4 Divergent Orbits for 1 < r2 |
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182 | (5) |
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5.7 A Horadam-Based Pseudo-Random Number Generator |
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187 | (5) |
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5.7.1 Pseudo-Random Generators and Horadam Sequences |
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187 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Complex Arguments of 2D Dense Horadam Orbits |
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188 | (2) |
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5.7.3 Monte Carlo Simulations for Mixed Arguments |
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190 | (2) |
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5.8 Nonhomogeneous Horadam Sequences |
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192 | (3) |
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5.8.1 Constant Perturbation |
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192 | (1) |
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5.8.2 Periodic Perturbations |
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193 | (2) |
6 Higher Order Linear Recurrent Sequences |
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195 | (68) |
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6.1 Linear Recurrent Sequences (LRS) |
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196 | (9) |
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6.1.1 Definition and General Term |
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196 | (1) |
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6.1.2 The Solution of a Linear Recurrence Equation |
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197 | (4) |
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6.1.3 The Space of Solutions for Linear Recurrence Equations |
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201 | (1) |
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6.1.4 Reduction of Order for LRS |
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202 | (3) |
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6.2 Systems of Recurrent Sequences |
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205 | (21) |
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6.2.1 Weighed Arithmetic Mean |
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206 | (1) |
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6.2.2 The Solution of a System of Linear Recurrence Relations |
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207 | (4) |
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6.2.3 Systems of Two Linear Recurrent Sequences |
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211 | (10) |
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6.2.4 Sequences Interpolating Geometric Inequalities |
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221 | (5) |
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6.3 The Periodicity of Complex LRS |
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226 | (11) |
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226 | (4) |
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230 | (4) |
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6.3.3 Distinct Roots with Arbitrary Multiplicities |
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234 | (3) |
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6.4 The Geometry and Enumeration of Periodic Patterns |
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237 | (10) |
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6.4.1 Geometric Bounds of Periodic Orbits |
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237 | (2) |
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6.4.2 The Geometric Structure of Periodic Orbits |
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239 | (1) |
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6.4.3 "Masked" Periodicity |
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240 | (3) |
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6.4.4 The Enumeration of Periodic Orbits |
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243 | (1) |
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6.4.5 A First Formula for Hp (m; k) |
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243 | (4) |
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6.5 Orbits Generated by Roots of Unity |
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247 | (3) |
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6.6 Orbits of Complex General Order LRS |
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250 | (9) |
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6.6.1 Stable Orbits: r1 = r2 = ... = rm = 1 |
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250 | (3) |
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6.6.2 Quasi-Convergent Orbits: 0 < r1 < r2 = r3 = 1 |
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253 | (3) |
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6.6.3 Convergent Orbits: 0 < or = to r1 < or = to r2 < or = to ... < rm < 1 |
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256 | (1) |
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6.6.4 Divergent Orbits: rm > 1 |
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257 | (2) |
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6.7 Connection to Finite Differences |
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259 | (4) |
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6.7.1 Solving Difference Equations |
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260 | (1) |
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6.7.2 Finding the Difference Equation for a Sequence |
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261 | (2) |
7 Recurrences in Olympiad Training |
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263 | (20) |
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7.1 First-Order Recurrent Sequences |
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263 | (3) |
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7.2 Second-Order Recurrent Sequences |
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266 | (3) |
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7.3 Classical Recurrent Sequences |
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269 | (3) |
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7.4 Higher Order Recurrence Relations |
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272 | (1) |
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7.5 Systems of Recurrence Relations |
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273 | (2) |
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7.6 Homographic Recurrent Sequences |
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275 | (1) |
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7.7 Complex Recurrent Sequences |
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276 | (2) |
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7.8 Recurrent Sequences in Combinatorics |
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278 | (2) |
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280 | (3) |
8 Solutions to Proposed Problems |
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283 | (98) |
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8.1 First-Order Recurrent Sequences |
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283 | (13) |
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8.2 Second-Order Recurrent Sequences |
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296 | (17) |
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8.3 Classical Recurrent Sequences |
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313 | (17) |
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8.4 Higher Order Recurrent Sequences |
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330 | (8) |
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8.5 Systems of Recurrence Relations |
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338 | (12) |
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8.6 Homographic Recurrent Sequences |
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350 | (7) |
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8.7 Complex Recurrent Sequences |
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357 | (7) |
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8.8 Recurrent Sequences in Combinatorics |
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364 | (10) |
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374 | (7) |
Appendix |
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381 | (12) |
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A Complex Geometry and Number Theory |
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381 | (12) |
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381 | (1) |
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A.1.1 The Triangle Inequality |
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381 | (1) |
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A.1.2 Regular Star Polygons and Multipartite Graphs |
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382 | (1) |
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A.2 Key Elements of Number Theory |
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382 | (8) |
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A.2.1 The lcm and gcd of Integer Pairs |
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382 | (1) |
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A.2.2 The lcm and gcd of Integer Tuples |
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383 | (1) |
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A.2.3 Links Between the 1cm and gcd of Integer Tuples |
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384 | (1) |
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A.2.4 Euler's Totient Function |
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385 | (1) |
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A.2.5 The "Stars and Bars" Argument |
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385 | (1) |
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A.2.6 Partitions of Numbers and Stirling Numbers |
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386 | (1) |
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A.2.7 Linear (In)dependence and Density Results |
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387 | (3) |
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A.3 Numerical Implementation of LRS General Terms |
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390 | (3) |
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391 | (1) |
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391 | (1) |
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A.3.3 Distinct Roots z1,...zm of Higher Multiplicities d1,...,dm |
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392 | (1) |
References |
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393 | (8) |
Index |
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401 | |