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Semantic Structure in English [Kietas viršelis]

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Semantic Structure in EnglishDidesnis paveikslėlis
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Syntax puts our meaning (semantics) into sentences, and phonology puts the sentences into the sounds that we hear and there must, surely, be a structure in the meaning that is expressed in the syntax and phonology. Some writers use the phrase semantic structure, but are referring to conceptual structure; since we can express our conceptual thought in many different linguistic ways, we cannot equate conceptual and semantic structures. The research reported in this book shows semantic structure to be in part hierarchic, fitting the syntax in which it is expressed, and partly a network, fitting the nature of the mind, from which it springs. It is complex enough to provide for the emotive and imaginative dimensions of language, and for shifts of standard meanings in context, and the rules that control them. Showing the full structure of English semantics requires attention to many currently topical issues, and since the underlying theory is fresh, there are fresh implications for them. The most important of those issues is information structure, which is given full treatment, showing its overall structure, and its relation to semantics and the whole grammar of English. As of October 2024, this e-book is Open Access under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
Chapter 1 Introduction 1(6)
1.1 Goals of the book
1(1)
1.2 Approach
1(1)
1.3 Argument of the book
2(3)
1.4 Plan of the book
5(2)
Chapter 2 Semantic structures in the strata of English 7(18)
2.1 Introduction
7(1)
2.2 Semantic structure in lexis
7(2)
2.2.1 Paradigmatic lexical relations
7(1)
2.2.2 Syntagmatic lexical relations
8(1)
2.2.3 Words without paradigmatic or syntagmatic relations
9(1)
2.3 Semantic structure in morphology
9(1)
2.3.1 Semantic classes
9(1)
2.3.2 Grammatical meaning
10(1)
2.3.3 Dependency and modification
10(1)
2.4 Semantic structure in syntax
10(4)
2.4.1 Semantic structure of clauses: The figure
10(3)
2.4.2 Semantic structure in groups
13(1)
2.5 Semantic structure in phonology
14(8)
2.5.1 Introduction
14(1)
2.5.2 Semantics of tonality
14(1)
2.5.3 Semantics of tone
15(1)
2.5.4 Semantics of tonicity
16(1)
2.5.5 Semantics of rhythm
17(1)
2.5.6 Semantic structure in phonetics
18(1)
2.5.7 Discussion: Semantic structure in phonology
19(2)
2.5.8 Conclusion: Semantics in the phonological stratum
21(1)
2.6 Conclusion: Semantic structure in the strata of English
22(3)
Chapter 3 Basis of semantic structure 25(14)
3.1 Introduction
25(1)
3.2 The intention to speak
25(3)
3.2.1 Main intention
25(1)
3.2.2 Subordinate intentions
26(1)
3.2.3 Discussion
27(1)
3.2.4 Conclusion
27(1)
3.3 Functions, as the formulation of intention
28(4)
3.3.1 Introduction
28(1)
3.3.2 Expressive function
28(2)
3.3.3 Interpersonal function
30(1)
3.3.4 Ideational function
31(1)
3.3.5 Conclusion
31(1)
3.4 Constraints on meaning
32(5)
3.4.1 Introduction
32(1)
3.4.2 Linguistic constraints
32(1)
3.4.3 Semiotic constraints
33(4)
3.5 Conclusion: Basis of semantic structure
37(2)
Chapter 4 Elements of semantic structure 39(40)
4.1 Introduction
39(1)
4.2 Preliminaries
39(4)
4.2.1 Areas of meaning: Cognitive and linguistic meaning
39(3)
4.2.2 Aspects of meaning
42(1)
4.3 Dimensions of linguistic meaning
43(4)
4.3.1 Introduction
43(1)
4.3.2 Quality dimension
43(1)
4.3.3 Intensity dimension
43(1)
4.3.4 Specificity dimension
44(1)
4.3.5 Vagueness dimension
44(1)
4.3.6 Basicness dimension
45(1)
4.3.7 Viewpoint dimension
45(1)
4.3.8 Boundedness dimension
45(1)
4.3.9 Expectedness dimension
46(1)
4.3.10 Salience dimension
47(1)
4.4 Content meaning
47(14)
4.4.1 Introduction
47(2)
4.4.2 Descriptive meaning
49(3)
4.4.3 Affective meaning
52(4)
4.4.4 Attitudinal meaning
56(2)
4.4.5 Social meaning
58(1)
4.4.6 Conclusion: Types of content meaning
59(2)
4.5 Grammatical meaning
61(7)
4.5.1 Introduction
61(3)
4.5.2 Types of grammatical meaning
64(1)
4.5.3 Dimensions of grammatical meaning
65(1)
4.5.4 Discussion
66(1)
4.5.5 Conclusion: Grammatical meaning
67(1)
4.6 Semantic classes
68(4)
4.6.1 Introduction
68(1)
4.6.2 Basic classes
69(2)
4.6.3 Discussion: Semantic classes
71(1)
4.6.4 Conclusion: Semantic classes
72(1)
4.7 Uses of meaning
72(5)
4.7.1 Introduction
72(1)
4.7.2 Marked use
73(1)
4.7.3 Defining and descriptive uses
73(3)
4.7.4 Literal and figurative uses
76(1)
4.8 Discussion: Elements of semantic structure
77(1)
4.9 Conclusion: Elements of semantic structure
77(2)
Chapter 5 Network structure 79(46)
5.1 Introduction
79(1)
5.1.1 General introduction
79(1)
5.1.2 Introduction to networks
80(1)
5.2 Structure within a word's meaning
80(15)
5.2.1 Introduction
80(2)
5.2.2 Word senses as a structure of meaning types
82(5)
5.2.3 Structure within descriptive senses
87(5)
5.2.4 Structure within non-descriptive senses
92(1)
5.2.5 Discussion: Compositionality of sense structure
93(2)
5.3 Structure among word senses
95(13)
5.3.1 Introduction
95(1)
5.3.2 Sense relations: Synonymy
96(2)
5.3.3 Other sense relations
98(1)
5.3.4 Variation in sense structure
99(8)
5.3.5 Conclusion: Structure among word senses
107(1)
5.4 Structure of sublexical meaning
108(8)
5.4.1 Introduction
108(1)
5.4.2 Dimensions
109(1)
5.4.3 Elements and their sublexical relations
110(2)
5.4.4 Elements' external relations
112(1)
5.4.5 Discussion: Structure of sublexical meanings
113(2)
5.4.6 Conclusion: Structure of sublexical meaning
115(1)
5.5 Networks in other strata
116(4)
5.5.1 Networks in clause syntax
116(2)
5.5.2 Networks in group syntax
118(1)
5.5.3 Lexical network: Cohesion
119(1)
5.6 Discussion: Network structures in English
120(3)
5.6.1 Whole utterances as networks
120(1)
5.6.2 Networks in imaginative English
121(1)
5.6.3 Relations among one word's various senses: Polysemy
121(2)
5.7 Conclusion: Network structures in English
123(2)
Chapter 6 System structure 125(22)
6.1 Introduction
125(2)
6.1.1 General introduction
125(1)
6.1.2 Introduction to system structure
126(1)
6.2 System processes
127(11)
6.2.1 Introduction: Grammatical meanings
127(1)
6.2.2 Preliminary process: Obtaining content for the main procedure
128(1)
6.2.3 Processes applying within words and groups
129(5)
6.2.4 Processes applying within figures and figure complexes: Complementation
134(1)
6.2.5 Processes applying to a whole figure
135(2)
6.2.6 Discussion: System processes
137(1)
6.2.7 Conclusion: Grammatical meaning
138(1)
6.3 System procedures: Using the processes
138(2)
6.3.1 Introduction
138(1)
6.3.2 Constructing hierarchic structures
139(1)
6.3.3 Constructing network structures in morphosyntax
140(1)
6.4 Discussion: System structure
140(4)
6.4.1 Details not yet explained
140(1)
6.4.2 Signs used for grammatical meaning
141(1)
6.4.3 Grammatical meanings in figurative and other uses
141(1)
6.4.4 Grammatical meaning as backgrounded meaning
142(1)
6.4.5 Other views of grammatical meaning
143(1)
6.5 Conclusion: System structure
144(3)
Chapter 7 Hierarchic structure (1): Figures 147(30)
7.1 Introduction
147(2)
7.1.1 Introduction to hierarchies in semantics
147(1)
7.1.2 Introduction to figures
148(1)
7.2 Figure structures
149(6)
7.2.1 Introduction: Processes
149(1)
7.2.2 Material-Process structure
150(1)
7.2.3 Mental-Process structures
151(1)
7.2.4 Relational-Process structures
152(1)
7.2.5 Discussion: Figure structures
153(1)
7.2.6 Conclusion: Summary of figure structures
154(1)
7.3 Processes
155(4)
7.3.1 Introduction: Processes
155(1)
7.3.2 Internal structure of Processes
155(1)
7.3.3 Syntagmatic structure of Processes
156(2)
7.3.4 Semantic class: Process
158(1)
7.3.5 Conclusion: Summary of Processes
159(1)
7.4 Participants
159(3)
7.4.1 Introduction
159(1)
7.4.2 Internal structure
160(1)
7.4.3 Syntagmatic structure
160(1)
7.4.4 Participant as semantic class
161(1)
7.4.5 Discussion: Participant roles and "semantic roles"
161(1)
7.4.6 Conclusion: Summary of Participants
162(1)
7.5 Circumstances
162(6)
7.5.1 Introduction
162(1)
7.5.2 Internal structure of Circumstances
163(1)
7.5.3 Syntagmatic structure of Circumstances
164(2)
7.5.4 Semantic class of Circumstances
166(1)
7.5.5 Discussion: Circumstances
166(2)
7.5.6 Conclusion: Summary of Circumstances
168(1)
7.6 Relations among Participant, Process and Circumstance
168(1)
7.7 Structures larger than the figure
169(1)
7.8 Discussion: Figures
170(5)
7.8.1 Co-ordination and linearity
170(1)
7.8.2 Constructions
171(1)
7.8.3 Ergativity
172(2)
7.8.4 Compositionality in figures
174(1)
7.9 Conclusion: Figures
175(2)
Chapter 8 Hierarchies (2): Groups and senses 177(78)
8.1 Introduction
177(1)
8.1.1 General introduction
177(1)
8.1.2 Introduction to groups
177(1)
8.2 Entity groups
178(44)
8.2.1 Introduction
178(2)
8.2.2 Classifiers
180(9)
8.2.3 Descriptors
189(4)
8.2.4 Epithets
193(7)
8.2.5 Reinforcers
200(3)
8.2.6 Determiners
203(2)
8.2.7 Postmodifiers
205(1)
8.2.8 Heads
206(5)
8.2.9 Entity group as a unit
211(6)
8.2.10 Discussion of Entity groups
217(5)
8.3 Process groups
222(17)
8.3.1 Introduction
222(1)
8.3.2 The Finite
223(1)
8.3.3 Grammatical auxiliaries
224(1)
8.3.4 Modal auxiliaries
225(1)
8.3.5 Negative as modifier
226(1)
8.3.6 Premodifiers
226(5)
8.3.7 Postposed particles as modifiers
231(1)
8.3.8 Heads of Process groups
232(4)
8.3.9 Process groups as units
236(1)
8.3.10 Discussion: Process groups
237(2)
8.3.11 Conclusion: Process groups
239(1)
8.4 Property groups
239(6)
8.4.1 Introduction
239(1)
8.4.2 Property groups with Property heads
240(2)
8.4.3 Headless Property groups: Prepositional phrases
242(2)
8.4.4 Conclusion: Property groups
244(1)
8.5 Words and morphemes
245(5)
8.5.1 Internal structure
245(2)
8.5.2 Syntagmatic structure
247(1)
8.5.3 Semantic classes: Content meaning
248(1)
8.5.4 Grammatical meaning in words and morphemes
249(1)
8.5.5 Discussion: Compositionality of word senses
249(1)
8.6 Discussion: Hierarchic structure in groups and senses
250(2)
8.6.1 Language constraints
250(1)
8.6.2 Semantic change
251(1)
8.7 Conclusion: Hierarchic structure in groups and senses
252(3)
Chapter 9 Hierarchic structure (3): Information structure 255(36)
9.1 Introduction
255(3)
9.1.1 General introduction
255(1)
9.1.2 Introduction to information structure
255(3)
9.2 Relevance structure
258(8)
9.2.1 Introduction
258(2)
9.2.2 Reporting structure
260(1)
9.2.3 Loose structures
261(1)
9.2.4 Topic-Comment structure
262(3)
9.2.5 Conclusion: Relevance structure
265(1)
9.3 Orientation structure: "Theme"
266(6)
9.3.1 Introduction
266(1)
9.3.2 Classes of Theme
267(2)
9.3.3 Themes occurring at ranks other than the figure
269(1)
9.3.4 Discussion: Orientation structure
270(1)
9.3.5 Conclusion: Orientation structure
271(1)
9.4 Salience structure: Rheme
272(10)
9.4.1 Introduction
272(1)
9.4.2 Salience within an information item
273(3)
9.4.3 Salience of items within an information unit: Rhematic structure
276(3)
9.4.4 Salience of information units in larger units
279(2)
9.4.5 Conclusion: Salience structure
281(1)
9.5 Discussion: Information structure
282(5)
9.5.1 Relation of information structure to the bases and elements of language
282(1)
9.5.2 Compositionality
283(1)
9.5.3 Case
284(2)
9.5.4 Cohesion
286(1)
9.6 Conclusion: Information structure
287(4)
9.6.1 Summary
287(1)
9.6.2 Conclusions drawn
288(3)
Chapter 10 Other structures 291(18)
10.1 Introduction
291(1)
10.2 Semantic units with indeterminate structure
291(4)
10.2.1 Introduction
291(1)
10.2.2 Ideational function
292(1)
10.2.3 Interpersonal function
292(2)
10.2.4 Expressive function
294(1)
10.3 Semantic units with multifunctional structure
295(6)
10.3.1 Introduction
295(1)
10.3.2 Holophrases
295(4)
10.3.3 Ideophones
299(1)
10.3.4 Discussion: Semantic units with multifunctional structure
300(1)
10.3.5 Conclusion: Semantic units with multifunctional structure
301(1)
10.4 Semantic units with field structure
301(3)
10.5 Semantic units with wave structure
304(3)
10.5.1 Introduction
304(1)
10.5.2 Wave structure in information
304(2)
10.5.3 Wave structure in aesthetics and emotion
306(1)
10.5.4 Conclusion: Wave structure
306(1)
10.6 Discussion: Other structures
307(1)
10.7 Conclusion: Other structures
307(2)
Chapter 11 Realisation (1): Interpersonal functions 309(32)
11.1 Introduction
309(3)
11.1.1 General introduction
309(1)
11.1.2 Introduction to realisation
310(2)
11.2 Realising the Expressive function
312(4)
11.2.1 Introduction
312(1)
11.2.2 Holistic realisation of Expression
312(1)
11.2.3 Phonological realisation of Expression
313(1)
11.2.4 Phonetic realisation of Expression
314(1)
11.2.5 Lexical realisation of Expression
315(1)
11.2.6 Conclusion: Realisation of Expression
315(1)
11.3 Realising emotion and attitude
316(3)
11.3.1 Introduction
316(1)
11.3.2 Conveying emotion by phonology and phonetics
316(1)
11.3.3 Conveying emotion by lexis and syntax
317(1)
11.3.4 Conveying attitude
318(1)
11.3.5 Conclusion: Conveying emotion and attitude
319(1)
11.4 Establishing personal and social relations
319(2)
11.4.1 Establishing personal relations
319(1)
11.4.2 Establishing social relations and social status
320(1)
11.4.3 Discussion: Personal and social relations
320(1)
11.4.4 Conclusion: Personal and social relations
321(1)
11.5 Guiding hearers' use of meaning
321(12)
11.5.1 Introduction: Realisation of grammatical meaning
321(1)
11.5.2 Guiding hearers' overt response
322(1)
11.5.3 Guiding hearers to syntagmatic structure
323(1)
11.5.4 Guiding hearers to information structure
324(6)
11.5.5 Guiding the hearer's attitude to content: Irrealis
330(2)
11.5.6 Discussion: Guiding hearers
332(1)
11.5.7 Conclusion: Guiding hearers
333(1)
11.6 Provoking imaginative responses
333(5)
11.6.1 Introduction
333(1)
11.6.2 How imaginative responses are provoked
334(3)
11.6.3 Discussion: Provoking imaginative responses
337(1)
11.6.4 Conclusion: Provoking imaginative responses
337(1)
11.7 Discussion: Realisation of interpersonal meanings
338(1)
11.8 Conclusion: Realisation of interpersonal functions
339(2)
Chapter 12 Realisation (2): Ideational function 341(44)
12.1 Introduction
341(2)
12.1.1 General introduction
341(1)
12.1.2 Introduction to ideational realisation
341(2)
12.2 From intentions to words
343(7)
12.2.1 Introduction
343(1)
12.2.2 Unmarked realisation into words
344(4)
12.2.3 Marked realisation into words
348(1)
12.2.4 Conclusion: From intentions to words
349(1)
12.3 Syntacticisation (1): From words to groups
350(11)
12.3.1 Introduction
350(1)
12.3.2 Grouping the words
351(1)
12.3.3 Structuring the group
352(4)
12.3.4 Ordering the group
356(1)
12.3.5 Signalling the group structure
357(3)
12.3.6 Discussion: Syntacticisation into groups
360(1)
12.3.7 Conclusion: Syntacticisation into groups
360(1)
12.4 Syntacticisation (2): From groups to clauses
361(7)
12.4.1 Introduction
361(1)
12.4.2 Structuring the units
361(4)
12.4.3 Ordering clause units
365(1)
12.4.4 Signalling the structure
366(1)
12.4.5 Conclusion: Syntacticisation into clauses
367(1)
12.4.6 Grouping figures in a clause complex
367(1)
12.5 Physical realisation
368(4)
12.5.1 Introduction
368(1)
12.5.2 Realisation in sound
369(2)
12.5.3 Realisation in writing
371(1)
12.6 Discussion: Realisation of ideational function
372(4)
12.6.1 How we conceptualise realisation
372(1)
12.6.2 Incongruent realisation: Grammatical metaphor
372(1)
12.6.3 Construal
373(1)
12.6.4 Statives
373(1)
12.6.5 Domains offering alternative realisation
374(2)
12.6.6 Comparison between morphosyntactic layers
376(1)
12.7 Conclusion: Realisation of ideational meaning
376(2)
12.8 Conclusion: Both forms of meaning realisation in English
378(7)
12.8.1 Relation between the two forms of realisation
378(2)
12.8.2 Sequence of steps
380(1)
12.8.3 Realisation strategies
381(1)
12.8.4 Adequacy of realisation as a semantic concept
382(1)
12.8.5 Constraints on realisation
383(1)
12.8.6 Looking forward
384(1)
Chapter 13 Discussion 385(22)
13.1 Compositionality
385(3)
13.1.1 Introduction
385(1)
13.1.2 Full compositionality
386(1)
13.1.3 Limited compositionality
387(1)
13.2 Word classes
388(5)
13.2.1 Introduction
388(1)
13.2.2 Needlessness and unworkability
388(1)
13.2.3 Lack of explanatory power
389(2)
13.2.4 Support
391(1)
13.2.5 Discussion
392(1)
13.2.6 Conclusion
393(1)
13.3 Prototypes
393(6)
13.3.1 Introduction
393(1)
13.3.2 Needlessness of prototype theory in English grammar
394(1)
13.3.3 Unworkability of prototypes in grammar
395(1)
13.3.4 Confusions in acceptance of prototypes
395(3)
13.3.5 Conclusion: Prototypes
398(1)
13.4 Lexicon
399(2)
13.5 Systematisation
401(1)
13.6 Minor topics for discussion
402(5)
13.6.1 Semiotics
402(1)
13.6.2 Distinction between descriptive and referential use
402(1)
13.6.3 Distinction between grammatical and content meaning
403(1)
13.6.4 Distinction between cognitive and linguistic areas of meaning
403(1)
13.6.5 Formalisation of linguistic description
404(1)
13.6.6 Concept of classes
404(1)
13.6.7 Philosophical tradition in linguistics
405(2)
Chapter 14 Conclusion 407(20)
14.1 Introduction
407(1)
14.2 Nature of meaning
407(3)
14.2.1 Introduction
407(1)
14.2.2 Symptomatic meaning
408(1)
14.2.3 Semiotic meaning
409(1)
14.3 Nature of semantic structure
410(3)
14.3.1 Introduction
410(1)
14.3.2 Analytical view of semantic structure (1): Structures of units
410(2)
14.3.3 Analytical view of semantic structure (2): Structures in a medium
412(1)
14.3.4 Functional view of semantic structure
412(1)
14.3.5 Conclusion: Nature of semantic structure
413(1)
14.4 Stratification of the semantic structure
413(12)
14.4.1 Introduction
413(1)
14.4.2 Semantics
414(1)
14.4.3 Lexical items
414(1)
14.4.4 Morphology
415(1)
14.4.5 Morphosyntax
415(4)
14.4.6 Information structure
419(1)
14.4.7 Phonology and graphology
419(2)
14.4.8 Phonetics
421(1)
14.4.9 Discussion: Stratification
422(1)
14.4.10 Conclusion: Stratification
422(3)
14.5 Contribution to semantics
425(1)
14.6 Further research
425(2)
References 427(16)
Index 443