Preface with Publisher's Acknowledgements |
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xv | |
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1 | (30) |
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1 | (2) |
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1.2 A Short Historical Note |
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3 | (1) |
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4 | (8) |
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1.4 Classification of Sensors and Actuators |
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12 | (4) |
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1.5 General Requirements for Interfacing |
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16 | (2) |
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18 | (8) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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1.6.3 Supplementary Units |
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20 | (1) |
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20 | (2) |
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22 | (1) |
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1.6.6 Other Units and Measures |
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22 | (1) |
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1.6.6.1 Units of Information |
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22 | (1) |
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1.6.6.2 The Decibel (dB) and Its Use |
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23 | (3) |
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26 | (5) |
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2 Performance Characteristics of Sensors and Actuators |
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31 | (36) |
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31 | (1) |
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2.2 Input and Output Characteristics |
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32 | (29) |
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32 | (3) |
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2.2.2 Impedance and Impedance Matching |
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35 | (4) |
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2.2.3 Range, Span, Input and Output Full Scale, Resolution, and Dynamic Range |
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39 | (3) |
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2.2.4 Accuracy, Errors, and Repeatability |
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42 | (3) |
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2.2.5 Sensitivity and Sensitivity Analysis |
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45 | (7) |
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2.2.6 Hysteresis, Nonlinearity, and Saturation |
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52 | (4) |
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2.2.7 Frequency Response, Response Time, and Bandwidth |
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56 | (2) |
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58 | (1) |
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59 | (1) |
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59 | (1) |
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59 | (2) |
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61 | (6) |
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3 Temperature Sensors and Thermal Actuators |
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67 | (62) |
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67 | (3) |
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3.1.1 Units of Temperature, Thermal Conductivity, Heat, and Heat Capacity |
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69 | (1) |
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3.2 Thermoresistive Sensors: Thermistors, Resistance Temperature Sensors, and Silicon Resistive Sensors |
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70 | (18) |
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3.2.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors |
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70 | (8) |
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3.2.1.1 Self-Heat of RTDs |
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78 | (2) |
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80 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Silicon Resistive Sensors |
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81 | (3) |
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84 | (4) |
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3.3 Thermoelectric Sensors |
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88 | (16) |
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3.3.1 Practical Considerations |
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94 | (7) |
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3.3.2 Semiconductor Thermocouples |
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101 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Thermopiles and Thermoelectric Generators |
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102 | (2) |
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3.4 p-n Junction Temperature Sensors |
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104 | (5) |
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3.5 Other Temperature Sensors |
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109 | (9) |
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3.5.1 Optical and Acoustical Sensors |
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109 | (1) |
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3.5.2 Thermomechanical Sensors and Actuators |
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110 | (8) |
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118 | (11) |
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4 Optical Sensors and Actuators |
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129 | (48) |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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4.4 Effects of Optical Radiation |
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132 | (6) |
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132 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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4.4.2.1 The Photoelectric Effect |
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133 | (2) |
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4.4.2.2 Quantum Effects: The Photoconducting Effect |
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135 | (2) |
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4.4.2.3 Spectral Sensitivity |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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4.5 Quantum-Based Optical Sensors |
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138 | (15) |
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4.5.1 Photoconducting Sensors |
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138 | (4) |
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142 | (5) |
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4.5.3 Photovoltaic Diodes |
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147 | (3) |
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150 | (3) |
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4.6 Photoelectric Sensors |
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153 | (3) |
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4.6.1 The Photoelectric Sensor |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (2) |
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4.7 Coupled Charge (CCD) Sensors and Detectors |
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156 | (3) |
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4.8 Thermal-Based Optical Sensors |
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159 | (7) |
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160 | (1) |
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160 | (2) |
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4.8.1.2 Pyroelectric Sensors |
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162 | (3) |
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165 | (1) |
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4.9 Active Far Infrared (AFIR) Sensors |
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166 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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168 | (9) |
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5 Electric and Magnetic Sensors and Actuators |
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177 | (104) |
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177 | (2) |
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179 | (1) |
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5.3 The Electric Field: Capacitive Sensors and Actuators |
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180 | (14) |
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5.3.1 Capacitive Position, Proximity, and Displacement Sensors |
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183 | (4) |
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5.3.2 Capacitive Fluid Level Sensors |
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187 | (2) |
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5.3.3 Capacitive Actuators |
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189 | (5) |
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5.4 Magnetic Fields: Sensors and Actuators |
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194 | (24) |
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199 | (2) |
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5.4.1.1 Inductive Proximity Sensors |
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201 | (4) |
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5.4.1.2 Eddy Current Proximity Sensors |
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205 | (3) |
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5.4.1.3 Position and Displacement Sensing: Variable Inductance Sensors |
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208 | (3) |
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5.4.2 Hall Effect Sensors |
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211 | (7) |
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5.5 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Sensors and Actuators |
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218 | (4) |
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5.5.1 MHD Generator or Sensor |
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219 | (1) |
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5.5.2 MHD Pump or Actuator |
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219 | (3) |
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5.6 Magnetoresistance and Magnetoresistive Sensors |
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222 | (2) |
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5.7 Magnetostrictive Sensors and Actuators |
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224 | (6) |
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5.7.1 Magnetostrictive Actuators |
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227 | (3) |
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230 | (6) |
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230 | (2) |
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5.8.2 The Fluxgate Magnetometer |
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232 | (3) |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (23) |
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5.9.1 Voice Coil Actuators |
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237 | (3) |
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5.9.2 Motors as Actuators |
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240 | (1) |
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5.9.2.1 Operation Principles |
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241 | (4) |
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5.9.2.2 Brushless, Electronically Commutated DC Motors (BLDC Motors) |
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245 | (2) |
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247 | (1) |
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248 | (6) |
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254 | (2) |
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5.9.3 Magnetic Solenoid Actuators and Magnetic Valves |
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256 | (3) |
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5.10 Voltage and Current Sensors |
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259 | (8) |
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260 | (3) |
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263 | (4) |
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267 | (14) |
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6 Mechanical Sensors and Actuators |
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281 | (54) |
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281 | (1) |
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6.2 Some Definitions and Units |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (14) |
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283 | (2) |
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6.3.2 Semiconductor Strain Gauges |
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285 | (3) |
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288 | (1) |
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288 | (4) |
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6.3.3 Other Strain Gauges |
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292 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Force and Tactile Sensors |
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292 | (5) |
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297 | (8) |
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6.4.1 Capacitive Accelerometers |
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298 | (2) |
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6.4.2 Strain Gauge Accelerometers |
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300 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Magnetic Accelerometers |
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301 | (1) |
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6.4.4 Other Accelerometers |
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302 | (3) |
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305 | (10) |
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6.5.1 Mechanical Pressure Sensors |
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305 | (5) |
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6.5.2 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors |
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310 | (4) |
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6.5.3 Capacitive Pressure Sensors |
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314 | (1) |
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6.5.4 Magnetic Pressure Sensors |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (4) |
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6.7 Inertial Sensors: Gyroscopes |
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319 | (5) |
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6.7.1 Mechanical or Rotor Gyroscopes |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (3) |
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324 | (11) |
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7 Acoustic Sensors and Actuators |
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335 | (68) |
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335 | (2) |
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7.2 Units and Definitions |
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337 | (3) |
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7.3 Elastic Waves and Their Properties |
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340 | (10) |
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341 | (8) |
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349 | (1) |
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349 | (1) |
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350 | (1) |
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350 | (7) |
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7.4.1 The Carbon Microphone |
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350 | (2) |
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7.4.2 The Magnetic Microphone |
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352 | (2) |
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7.4.3 The Ribbon Microphone |
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354 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Capacitive Microphones |
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354 | (3) |
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7.5 The Piezoelectric Effect |
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357 | (6) |
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361 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Piezoelectric Sensors |
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361 | (2) |
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363 | (10) |
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363 | (6) |
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7.6.2 Headphones and Buzzers |
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369 | (1) |
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7.6.2.1 The Magnetic Buzzer |
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369 | (2) |
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7.6.2.2 The Piezoelectric Headphone and Piezoelectric Buzzer |
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371 | (2) |
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7.7 Ultrasonic Sensors and Actuators: Transducers |
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373 | (8) |
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7.7.1 Pulse-Echo Operation |
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377 | (3) |
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7.7.2 Magnetostrictive Transducers |
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380 | (1) |
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7.8 Piezoelectric Actuators |
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381 | (4) |
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7.9 Piezoelectric Resonators and SAW Devices |
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385 | (5) |
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390 | (13) |
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8 Chemical Sensor and Actuators |
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403 | (54) |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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8.3 Electrochemical Sensors |
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406 | (7) |
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8.3.1 Metal Oxide Sensors |
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406 | (3) |
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8.3.2 Solid Electrolyte Sensors |
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409 | (4) |
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8.3.3 The Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Chemical Sensor |
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413 | (1) |
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8.4 Potentiometric Sensors |
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413 | (8) |
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8.4.1 Glass Membrane Sensors |
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414 | (3) |
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8.4.2 Soluble Inorganic Salt Membrane Sensors |
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417 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Polymer-Immobilized Ionophore Membranes |
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418 | (1) |
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8.4.4 Gel-Immobilized Enzyme Membranes |
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419 | (1) |
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8.4.5 The Ion-Sensitive Field-Effect Transistor (ISFET) |
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420 | (1) |
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8.5 Thermochemical Sensors |
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421 | (4) |
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8.5.1 Thermistor-Based Chemical Sensors |
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421 | (1) |
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422 | (3) |
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8.5.3 Thermal Conductivity Sensor |
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425 | (1) |
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8.6 Optical Chemical Sensors |
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425 | (4) |
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429 | (3) |
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8.7.1 Mass Humidity and Gas Sensors |
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431 | (1) |
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431 | (1) |
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8.8 Humidity and Moisture Sensors |
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432 | (7) |
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8.8.1 Capacitive Moisture Sensors |
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433 | (2) |
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8.8.2 Resistive Humidity Sensor |
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435 | (1) |
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8.8.3 Thermal Conduction Moisture Sensors |
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436 | (1) |
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8.8.4 Optical Humidity Sensor |
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437 | (2) |
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439 | (6) |
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8.9.1 The Catalytic Converter |
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439 | (2) |
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441 | (1) |
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442 | (2) |
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8.9.4 Cathodic Protection |
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444 | (1) |
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445 | (12) |
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9 Radiation Sensors and Actuators |
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457 | (50) |
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457 | (2) |
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459 | (1) |
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460 | (14) |
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9.3.1 Ionization Sensors (Detectors) |
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461 | (1) |
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9.3.1.1 Ionization Chambers |
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461 | (2) |
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9.3.1.2 Proportional Chamber |
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463 | (1) |
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9.3.1.3 Geiger-Muller Counters |
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463 | (2) |
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9.3.2 Scintillation Sensors |
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465 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Semiconductor Radiation Detectors |
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466 | (1) |
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9.3.3.1 Bulk Semiconductor Radiation Sensor |
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467 | (3) |
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9.3.3.2 Semiconducting Junction Radiation Sensors |
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470 | (4) |
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474 | (13) |
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476 | (1) |
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476 | (3) |
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9.4.1.2 Reflection and Transmission Sensors |
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479 | (3) |
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9.4.1.3 Resonant Microwave Sensors |
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482 | (5) |
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9.4.1.4 Propagation Effects and Sensing |
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487 | (1) |
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9.5 Antennas as Sensors and Actuators |
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487 | (8) |
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487 | (2) |
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9.5.2 Antennas as Sensing Elements |
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489 | (5) |
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9.5.3 Antennas as Actuators |
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494 | (1) |
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495 | (12) |
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10 MEMS and Smart Sensors |
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507 | (60) |
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508 | (1) |
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509 | (5) |
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10.3 MEMS Sensors and Actuators |
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514 | (19) |
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515 | (1) |
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10.3.1.1 Pressure Sensors |
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515 | (1) |
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10.3.1.2 Mass Air Flow Sensors |
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515 | (2) |
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10.3.1.3 Inertial Sensors |
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517 | (2) |
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10.3.1.4 Angular Rate Sensors |
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519 | (4) |
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523 | (1) |
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10.3.2.1 Thermal and Piezoelectric Actuation |
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524 | (2) |
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10.3.2.2 Electrostatic Actuation |
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526 | (3) |
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529 | (1) |
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10.3.3.1 Optical Switches |
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529 | (1) |
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10.3.3.2 Mirrors and Mirror Arrays |
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529 | (1) |
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530 | (1) |
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531 | (2) |
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533 | (1) |
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10.4 Smart Sensors and Actuators |
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533 | (19) |
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10.4.1 Wireless Sensors and Actuators and Issues Associated with Their Use |
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538 | (1) |
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10.4.1.1 The ISM and SRD Bands |
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538 | (2) |
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10.4.1.2 The Wireless Link and Data Handling |
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540 | (2) |
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10.4.1.3 Transmitters, Receivers, and Transceivers |
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542 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Modulation and Demodulation |
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542 | (1) |
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10.4.2.1 Amplitude Modulation |
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543 | (1) |
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10.4.2.2 Frequency Modulation |
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544 | (1) |
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10.4.2.3 Phase Modulation |
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545 | (2) |
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10.4.2.4 Amplitude Shift Keying |
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547 | (1) |
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10.4.2.5 Frequency Shift Keying |
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548 | (1) |
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10.4.2.6 Phase Shift Keying |
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548 | (1) |
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549 | (1) |
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10.4.3.1 Amplitude Demodulation |
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549 | (1) |
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10.4.3.2 Frequency and Phase Demodulation |
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549 | (1) |
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10.4.4 Encoding and Decoding |
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550 | (1) |
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10.4.4.1 Unipolar and Bipolar Encoding |
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550 | (1) |
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10.4.4.2 Biphase Encoding |
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550 | (1) |
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551 | (1) |
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552 | (4) |
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556 | (11) |
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11 Interfacing Methods and Circuits |
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567 | (86) |
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567 | (3) |
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570 | (14) |
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11.2.1 The Operational Amplifier |
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570 | (1) |
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11.2.1.1 Differential Voltage Gain |
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571 | (1) |
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11.2.1.2 Common-Mode Voltage Gain |
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571 | (1) |
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571 | (1) |
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572 | (1) |
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573 | (1) |
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11.2.1.6 Output Impedance |
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573 | (1) |
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11.2.1.7 Temperature Drift and Noise |
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573 | (1) |
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11.2.1.8 Power Requirements |
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573 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Inverting and Noninverting Amplifiers |
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573 | (1) |
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11.2.2.1 The Inverting Amplifier |
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574 | (1) |
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11.2.2.2 The Noninverting Amplifier |
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575 | (2) |
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11.2.3 The Voltage Follower |
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577 | (1) |
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11.2.4 The Instrumentation Amplifier |
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577 | (1) |
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11.2.5 The Charge Amplifier |
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578 | (2) |
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11.2.6 The Integrator and the Differentiator |
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580 | (1) |
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11.2.7 The Current Amplifier |
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581 | (1) |
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582 | (2) |
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584 | (4) |
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11.3.1 Linear Power Amplifiers |
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584 | (2) |
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11.3.2 PWM and PWM Amplifiers |
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586 | (2) |
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588 | (7) |
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11.5 A/D and D/A Converters |
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595 | (11) |
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595 | (1) |
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11.5.1.1 Threshold Digitization |
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595 | (1) |
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11.5.1.2 Threshold Voltage-to-Frequency Conversion |
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596 | (2) |
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11.5.1.3 True A/D Converters |
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598 | (1) |
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11.5.1.4 Dual-Slope A/D Converter |
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598 | (2) |
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11.5.1.5 Successive Approximation A/D |
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600 | (2) |
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602 | (1) |
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11.5.2.1 Resistive Ladder Network D/A Conversion |
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602 | (3) |
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11.5.2.2 PWM D/A Conversion |
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605 | (1) |
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11.5.2.3 Frequency to Voltage (F/V) D/A Conversion |
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605 | (1) |
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606 | (8) |
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607 | (4) |
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611 | (3) |
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614 | (4) |
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11.7.1 Four-Wire Transmission |
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614 | (1) |
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11.7.2 Two-Wire Transmission for Passive Sensors |
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615 | (1) |
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11.7.3 Two-Wire Transmission for Active Sensors |
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615 | (3) |
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11.7.4 Digital Data Transmission Protocols and Buses |
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618 | (1) |
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11.8 Excitation Methods and Circuits |
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618 | (17) |
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11.8.1 Linear Power Supplies |
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619 | (2) |
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11.8.2 Switching Power Supplies |
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621 | (3) |
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624 | (1) |
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11.8.4 Voltage References |
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625 | (1) |
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626 | (1) |
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11.8.5.1 Crystal Oscillators |
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627 | (2) |
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11.8.5.2 LC and RC Oscillators |
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629 | (6) |
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11.9 Noise and Interference |
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635 | (4) |
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635 | (1) |
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636 | (3) |
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639 | (14) |
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12 Interfacing to Microprocessors |
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653 | (58) |
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654 | (1) |
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12.2 The Microprocessor as a General Purpose Controller |
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654 | (16) |
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655 | (1) |
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656 | (1) |
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12.2.3 Execution and Speed |
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656 | (1) |
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657 | (2) |
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659 | (3) |
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662 | (2) |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
664 | (2) |
|
|
666 | (3) |
|
12.2.10 Other Peripherals and Functionalities |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
12.2.11 Programs and Programmability |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
12.3 General Requirements for Interfacing Sensors and Actuators |
|
|
670 | (17) |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
|
672 | (4) |
|
12.3.3 Response and Frequency |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
12.3.4 Input Signal Conditioning |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
|
677 | (4) |
|
|
681 | (2) |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
|
684 | (3) |
|
|
687 | (12) |
|
|
687 | (3) |
|
12.4.2 Computation Errors |
|
|
690 | (7) |
|
12.4.3 Sampling and Quantization Errors |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
|
699 | (12) |
Answers to Problems |
|
711 | (14) |
Appendix A |
|
725 | (4) |
Appendix B |
|
729 | (14) |
Appendix C |
|
743 | (10) |
Index |
|
753 | |