| Preface |
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v | |
| Contents |
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vii | |
| Abbreviations |
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xxi | |
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xxiii | |
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lxxi | |
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Table of international instruments |
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xciii | |
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1 Criminal Law: Definition and Ambit |
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1 | (20) |
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§ 1.1 A search for definition |
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1 | (5) |
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(i) The harmful nature of the prohibited event |
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2 | (1) |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (13) |
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(i) Criminalisation ex ante |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (8) |
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16 | (3) |
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§ 1.3 The structure of a criminal offence |
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19 | (2) |
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(i) Defences: A separate element |
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20 | (1) |
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2 The Rule of Law and the European Convention on Human Rights |
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21 | (26) |
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§ 2.1 No conviction without criminalisation |
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22 | (1) |
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§ 2.2 Retrospective crimes |
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22 | (5) |
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27 | (6) |
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(i) Use of evaluative concepts |
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31 | (2) |
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33 | (1) |
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§ 2.5 The European Convention on Human Rights |
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34 | (13) |
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(i) The Human Rights Act 1998---the framework |
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36 | (5) |
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(ii) The interpretation of Convention rights |
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41 | (3) |
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(iii) The ECHR and the substantive criminal law |
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44 | (2) |
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(iv) The future of the HRA |
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46 | (1) |
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3 Interpretation and Proof |
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47 | (26) |
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§ 3.1 Statutory interpretation |
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47 | (15) |
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(i) The sources of the criminal law |
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48 | (2) |
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(ii) The interpretation of criminal statutes |
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50 | (9) |
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(iii) Interpretation and development of common law offences |
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59 | (3) |
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§ 3.2 The burden of proving actus reus and mens rea |
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62 | (11) |
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(i) Cases where the burden of proof is placed on the defendant |
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65 | (6) |
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(ii) The "golden thread": Somewhat frayed? |
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71 | (2) |
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73 | (68) |
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§ 4.1 The behaviour element |
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74 | (17) |
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(i) Behaviour and omissions |
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74 | (13) |
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(ii) Crimes with no (explicit) behaviour element |
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87 | (4) |
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§ 4.2 Consequences: The need for causation |
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91 | (31) |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (4) |
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97 | (19) |
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116 | (6) |
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§ 4.3 The requirement of voluntariness |
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122 | (19) |
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(i) Involuntary behaviour |
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123 | (6) |
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(ii) Omissions, states of affairs, and possession |
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129 | (6) |
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(iii) Involuntariness: Responsibility by antecedent fault |
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135 | (6) |
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141 | (56) |
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142 | (17) |
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(i) Ways of speaking about intention (in its core, direct sense) |
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143 | (2) |
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(ii) A formal definition of intention in its core, direct sense |
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145 | (2) |
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(iii) Foresight of consequences is not enough |
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147 | (2) |
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(iv) Virtually certain consequences: The second category of (indirect) intention |
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149 | (5) |
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(v) Intention and circumstances |
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154 | (1) |
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155 | (1) |
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(vii) "Ulterior intent" and "future intent" crimes |
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155 | (2) |
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(viii) Conditional intent |
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157 | (1) |
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(ix) No presumption of intention |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (9) |
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(i) The need for foresight |
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161 | (4) |
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(ii) Recklessness with respect to the behaviour element, rather than circumstances or consequences |
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165 | (1) |
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(iii) Recklessness and circumstances |
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165 | (2) |
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(iv) Voluntary intoxication and the presumption of recklessness |
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167 | (1) |
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§ 5.3 Why distinguish intention from recklessness? |
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168 | (1) |
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169 | (2) |
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170 | (1) |
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171 | (10) |
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(i) The test for negligence |
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172 | (2) |
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(ii) Does the reasonable person share any of the defendant's characteristics? |
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174 | (6) |
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(iii) Negligence with respect to behaviour rather than consequences or circumstances |
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180 | (1) |
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(iv) The place of negligence |
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180 | (1) |
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§ 5.6 Other mens rea states |
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181 | (6) |
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182 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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184 | (3) |
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§ 5.7 "Transferring" mens rea |
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187 | (4) |
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(i) "Incompatible" or "remote" transfers where the offence elements are satisfied? |
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190 | (1) |
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191 | (6) |
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(i) Circumventing the concurrence requirement |
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192 | (5) |
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6 Strict and Constructive Liability |
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197 | (32) |
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§ 6.1 Recognition of strict liability in a statutory offence |
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198 | (14) |
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(i) The initial presumption |
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201 | (3) |
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(ii) Factor 1: The nature of the offence |
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204 | (5) |
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(iii) Factor 2: The language of the legislation |
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209 | (1) |
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(iv) Factor 3: The scheme of the legislation |
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210 | (1) |
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(v) The ability of others to affect D's liability? |
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211 | (1) |
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§ 6.2 The availability of common law defences |
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212 | (2) |
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(i) Exception for situational offences |
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213 | (1) |
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§ 6.3 The justification of strict liability |
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214 | (5) |
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(i) The need for public protection |
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214 | (2) |
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(ii) The distinction between "real" crimes and quasi-criminal offences |
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216 | (1) |
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(iii) The practicalities of proof and the need for efficiency |
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217 | (2) |
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§ 6.4 Taking the middle ground: Strict liability in the Commonwealth |
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219 | (2) |
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§ 6.5 The correspondence principle, moral luck, and constructive liability |
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221 | (8) |
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(i) The correspondence principle |
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222 | (2) |
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224 | (5) |
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7 Secondary Participation |
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229 | (64) |
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§ 7.1 The possibility of derivative liability |
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229 | (2) |
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§ 7.2 Modes of participation |
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231 | (2) |
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233 | (3) |
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233 | (2) |
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(ii) Law Commission proposals |
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235 | (1) |
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§ 7.4 Secondary parties who assist or encourage crime |
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236 | (33) |
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236 | (6) |
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(ii) The need for a connection |
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242 | (1) |
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243 | (4) |
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(iv) Mens rea for participation by assistance or encouragement |
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247 | (22) |
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§ 7.5 Secondary parties pursuant to common unlawful purpose ("joint enterprise"; "parasitic accessory liability") |
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269 | (6) |
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(i) The main doctrinal differences |
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271 | (1) |
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(ii) The underlying structural and normative differences |
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272 | (3) |
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§ 7.6 General principles applying to all secondary parties |
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275 | (13) |
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(i) Liability is normally dependent on commission of the offence |
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275 | (1) |
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(ii) Exceptions: Secondary liability without the primary offence |
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275 | (3) |
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(Hi) Conviction for different offences with the same actus reus |
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278 | (4) |
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(iv) Limitations on secondary liability |
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282 | (3) |
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(v) Secondary liability and inchoate offences |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (2) |
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§ 7.7 Do we need complicity? |
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288 | (5) |
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(i) A causation analysis? |
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290 | (3) |
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8 Vicarious and Corporate Liability |
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293 | (26) |
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§ 8.1 Vicarious liability |
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293 | (9) |
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294 | (1) |
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(ii) When the act of an employee/agent is that of the employer/principal |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (3) |
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(iv) Anomalous cases of liability for an employee's act |
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299 | (2) |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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§ 8.2 Corporate liability |
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302 | (17) |
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(i) The justification of corporate liability |
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302 | (2) |
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(ii) Crimes of strict liability |
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304 | (1) |
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304 | (5) |
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(iv) Summary: The current law |
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309 | (1) |
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(v) Reform: New conceptions of corporate action and responsibility |
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310 | (6) |
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(vi) Punishing Corporations |
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316 | (1) |
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(vii) Deferred Prosecution Agreements |
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316 | (3) |
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319 | (84) |
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320 | (1) |
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§ 9.2 Encouraging and assisting a crime |
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321 | (18) |
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323 | (5) |
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328 | (8) |
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336 | (3) |
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339 | (31) |
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(i) Statutory conspiracy---definition and ambit |
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341 | (1) |
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342 | (7) |
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(iii) The "course of conduct" |
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349 | (3) |
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(iv) The mens rea of conspiracy |
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352 | (10) |
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(v) D's co-conspirators: Some limitations |
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362 | (4) |
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(vi) Conspiracies involving the commission of more than one offence |
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366 | (1) |
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(vii) Conspiracy to commit murder---duress |
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367 | (1) |
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(viii) Conspiracy---an unnecessary offence? |
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368 | (2) |
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370 | (22) |
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(i) Actus reus: The requirement of proximity |
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370 | (4) |
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(ii) The scope of the actus reus of attempt |
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374 | (3) |
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(iii) The mens rea of attempt |
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377 | (9) |
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(iv) Voluntary withdrawal |
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386 | (1) |
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(v) Liability for attempt and commission of the full offence |
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387 | (1) |
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(vi) Attempt, luck, and punishment |
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388 | (2) |
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(vii) Reform of the law of attempt |
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390 | (2) |
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§ 9.5 Impossibility and inchoate offences |
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392 | (7) |
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(i) The principle of an impossibility defence |
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392 | (3) |
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(ii) Impossibility at common law |
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395 | (2) |
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(iii) Impossibility in attempt, statutory conspiracy, encouragement, and assistance |
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397 | (2) |
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§ 9.6 Jurisdiction and inchoate offences |
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399 | (4) |
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403 | (80) |
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§ 10.1 Death and liability |
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403 | (1) |
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404 | (12) |
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404 | (6) |
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(ii) Causation in homicide |
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410 | (2) |
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(iii) Acts, omissions, and homicide |
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412 | (3) |
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(iv) Abolition of the year and a day rule |
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415 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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416 | (8) |
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(i) The mental element in murder |
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416 | (5) |
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(ii) The ambit of murder---an evaluation |
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421 | (3) |
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424 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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(ii) Voluntary manslaughter |
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425 | (1) |
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§ 10.5 The partial defences of loss of control and diminished responsibility |
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425 | (29) |
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(i) The former defence of provocation |
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426 | (2) |
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(ii) A critique of provocation |
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428 | (2) |
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430 | (12) |
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(iv) Diminished responsibility |
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442 | (11) |
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(v) Relationship between loss of control and diminished responsibility |
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453 | (1) |
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§ 10.6 Involuntary manslaughter |
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454 | (19) |
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(i) Constructive manslaughter |
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454 | (8) |
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(ii) Manslaughter by gross negligence |
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462 | (8) |
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(iii) Corporate manslaughter |
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470 | (2) |
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(iv) Reckless manslaughter |
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472 | (1) |
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§ 10.7 Reform of the law of homicide |
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473 | (2) |
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475 | (2) |
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§ 10.9 Causing the death of a child or vulnerable adult |
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477 | (1) |
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§ 10.10 Suicide, encouraging or assisting suicide, and suicide pacts |
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478 | (5) |
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478 | (1) |
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(ii) Encouraging or assisting suicide |
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479 | (3) |
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482 | (1) |
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11 Non-Fatal Offences Against the Person |
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483 | (54) |
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§ 11.1 Assault and battery |
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484 | (2) |
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486 | (5) |
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486 | (4) |
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(ii) The mens rea for assault |
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490 | (1) |
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491 | (3) |
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491 | (2) |
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493 | (1) |
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494 | (1) |
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§ 11.4 Assault occasioning actual bodily harm |
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494 | (2) |
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494 | (2) |
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496 | (1) |
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§ 11.5 Maliciously wounding or infliction of grievous bodily harm |
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496 | (5) |
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497 | (3) |
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500 | (1) |
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§ 11.6 Wounding or causing grievous bodily harm with intent |
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501 | (2) |
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501 | (1) |
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502 | (1) |
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§ 11.7 Transmitting diseases and infection |
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503 | (2) |
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(i) Cases where harm was intended |
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503 | (1) |
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(ii) Cases where the harm was knowingly risked |
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504 | (1) |
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(iii) Administering noxious things |
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505 | (1) |
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§ 11.8 The defence of chastisement |
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505 | (2) |
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§ 11.9 The defence of consent |
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507 | (14) |
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(i) Element 1: Communication of consent |
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508 | (1) |
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(ii) Element 2: Genuineness of consent |
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509 | (3) |
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(iii) Element 3: Nature of the activity consented to |
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512 | (6) |
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518 | (1) |
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(v) The limits of consent---critique |
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518 | (3) |
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521 | (6) |
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(i) Harassment of another |
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522 | (3) |
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(ii) "Persuasive" harassment of others |
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525 | (1) |
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(iii) Causing fear of violence |
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525 | (1) |
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526 | (1) |
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527 | (1) |
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§ 11.11 Racial and religious aggravation |
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527 | (4) |
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§ 11.12 Reforming the law of violence |
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531 | (6) |
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12 The Principal Sexual Offences |
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537 | (46) |
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§ 12.1 Non-consensual sexual offences: Common elements |
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538 | (1) |
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§ 12.2 Common element 1: Sexual conduct |
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539 | (5) |
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(i) Penetrations, touchings, and other activities that are "because of [ their] nature" sexual |
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540 | (2) |
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(ii) Penetrations, touchings, and other activities that are ambiguous by nature |
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542 | (2) |
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(iii) Mens rea and section 78 |
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544 | (1) |
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§ 12.3 Common element 2: The absence of consent |
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544 | (21) |
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(i) "Conclusive presumptions" about non-consent: Section 76 |
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545 | (4) |
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(ii) Section 75 and the "evidential presumptions" |
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549 | (4) |
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(iii) Beyond the evidential and conclusive presumptions |
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553 | (12) |
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§ 12.4 Common element 3: Intentional performance or causing of conduct |
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565 | (2) |
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§ 12.5 Common element 4: The absence of a reasonable belief in consent |
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567 | (3) |
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570 | (1) |
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§ 12.7 Assault by penetration |
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570 | (2) |
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572 | (1) |
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§ 12.9 Causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent |
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573 | (1) |
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§ 12.10 Consensual sexual offences |
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574 | (1) |
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§ 12.11 Child sex offences |
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574 | (5) |
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(i) Offences involving children under 13 |
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574 | (1) |
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(ii) Offences involving children under 16 |
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575 | (4) |
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579 | (1) |
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§ 12.13 "Familial child sex offences" |
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579 | (1) |
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§ 12.14 Sex with an adult relative |
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580 | (2) |
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582 | (1) |
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583 | (64) |
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§ 13.1 Property, rights, and justice |
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583 | (2) |
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§ 13.2 The definition of theft |
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585 | (1) |
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586 | (8) |
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(i) What counts as property? |
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586 | (6) |
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(ii) The exceptions in section 4(2)--(4) |
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592 | (2) |
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§ 13.4 Belonging to another (I)---the basics |
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594 | (12) |
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(i) What interests are protected by section 5? |
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595 | (1) |
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(ii) Theft by an owner under section 5(1) |
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595 | (1) |
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(in) Theft by an absolute owner? When D's interest is better than V's |
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596 | (1) |
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(iv) Has D become an absolute owner? |
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597 | (6) |
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(v) Abandonment and loss: Is finding theft? |
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603 | (3) |
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§ 13.5 Belonging to another (II): Extensions in the Act and in equity |
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606 | (9) |
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(i) The growth of the constructive trust |
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606 | (5) |
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(ii) Theft of an interest protected by section 5(2): Trust property |
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611 | (1) |
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(iii) Theft of an interest protected by section 5(3): Property received on account |
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611 | (2) |
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(iv) Theft of an interest protected by section 5(4): Where there is an obligation to make restitution |
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613 | (2) |
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615 | (15) |
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(i) Some examples of appropriation |
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616 | (1) |
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(ii) Restrictions on the scope of appropriation? |
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616 | (7) |
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(iii) Theft by keeping or omission |
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623 | (2) |
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(iv) Multiple and continuing appropriations |
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625 | (2) |
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627 | (1) |
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627 | (2) |
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629 | (1) |
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§ 13.7 Intention permanently to deprive |
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630 | (7) |
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630 | (4) |
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(ii) Section 6: Extensions and special cases |
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634 | (3) |
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637 | (7) |
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(i) Belief that he has the right to deprive: Section 2(1)(a) |
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638 | (1) |
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(ii) Belief that the other would consent: Section 2(1)(b) |
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639 | (1) |
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(iii) Belief that the owner cannot be found: Section 2(1)(c) |
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639 | (1) |
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(iv) The general test for dishonesty |
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640 | (4) |
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§ 13.9 Jurisdiction over Theft Act offences |
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644 | (3) |
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644 | (1) |
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645 | (2) |
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647 | (58) |
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§ 14.1 Handling stolen goods |
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647 | (18) |
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649 | (5) |
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654 | (4) |
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(iii) Knowledge or belief |
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658 | (5) |
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663 | (1) |
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(v) Concurrence of actus reus and mens rea |
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664 | (1) |
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(vi) Handling versus theft |
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664 | (1) |
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665 | (7) |
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665 | (3) |
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(ii) The three offences: Further details |
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668 | (4) |
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672 | (6) |
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673 | (1) |
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(ii) Use or threat of force |
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673 | (3) |
|
(iii) Immediately before or at the time of the theft |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
(iv) In order to commit theft |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
(v) Assault with intent to rob |
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
|
678 | (12) |
|
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
(iii) A building or part of a building |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
(iv) With intent to commit, or committing, the ulterior offence |
|
|
685 | (2) |
|
(v) The rationale of burglary |
|
|
687 | (2) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (12) |
|
|
|
690 | (3) |
|
|
|
693 | (1) |
|
(iii) Belonging to another |
|
|
693 | (1) |
|
(iv) Intentional or reckless damage |
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
(v) Intention or recklessness whether the property belongs to another |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
(vi) Without lawful excuse |
|
|
696 | (5) |
|
(vii) Criminal damage---a distinctive wrong |
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
§ 14.6 Aggravated criminal damage and arson |
|
|
702 | (2) |
|
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
§ 14.7 Preliminary offences |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
|
|
705 | (40) |
|
§ 15.1 Statutory fraud---general |
|
|
707 | (3) |
|
§ 15.2 Common elements: "Dishonesty" and "intent to make a gain or cause a loss" |
|
|
710 | (4) |
|
(i) Intent to make a gain or cause a loss |
|
|
710 | (4) |
|
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
§ 15.3 Fraud by false representation: Section 2 |
|
|
714 | (5) |
|
|
|
714 | (4) |
|
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
§ 15.4 Fraud by failing to disclose information: Section 3 |
|
|
719 | (4) |
|
§ 15.5 Fraud by abuse of position |
|
|
723 | (3) |
|
§ 15.6 Possessing, making and supplying articles for use in frauds |
|
|
726 | (2) |
|
§ 15.7 Dishonestly obtaining services |
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
§ 15.8 Making off without payment |
|
|
729 | (1) |
|
§ 15.9 Conspiracy to defraud |
|
|
730 | (11) |
|
(i) Agreement with another person |
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
(iii) The object of the conspiracy |
|
|
734 | (4) |
|
|
|
738 | (2) |
|
(v) Conspiracy to defraud, statutory fraud, and clarity of law |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
§ 15.10 Specific offences of fraud |
|
|
741 | (1) |
|
§ 15.11 Forgery and false accounting |
|
|
742 | (3) |
|
16 The Moral Limits of Criminalisation |
|
|
745 | (24) |
|
§ 16.1 The Harm Principle |
|
|
746 | (8) |
|
(i) What counts as a harm? |
|
|
748 | (2) |
|
|
|
750 | (1) |
|
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
(iv) Balancing requirements |
|
|
751 | (2) |
|
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
§ 16.2 The Offence Principle |
|
|
754 | (3) |
|
(i) Offensive conduct as a wrong |
|
|
755 | (1) |
|
(ii) A communicative and conventional wrong |
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
|
|
757 | (3) |
|
|
|
760 | (2) |
|
§ 16.5 Negative grounds for intervention: Regulatory alternatives |
|
|
762 | (3) |
|
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
(iv) Contra: Some advantages of using the criminal law |
|
|
764 | (1) |
|
§ 16.6 Negative grounds for intervention: The rule of law |
|
|
765 | (2) |
|
(i) Rule of law constraints on criminalisation |
|
|
765 | (1) |
|
(ii) The individuation of offences |
|
|
765 | (2) |
|
§ 16.7 Negative grounds for intervention: Practical constraints |
|
|
767 | (2) |
|
(i) What side-effects will criminalisation have? |
|
|
767 | (1) |
|
(ii) Pragmatics of the criminal justice system |
|
|
767 | (2) |
|
|
|
769 | (14) |
|
§ 17.1 "Failure of proof" versus "supervening" defences |
|
|
770 | (3) |
|
§ 17.2 Justification and excuse |
|
|
773 | (6) |
|
|
|
779 | (1) |
|
§ 17.4 The defences to be considered---an outline scheme |
|
|
779 | (4) |
|
|
|
783 | (38) |
|
§ 18.1 Ignorance and mistake of fact |
|
|
784 | (9) |
|
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
(ii) Subjective mens rea and mistake |
|
|
785 | (2) |
|
(iii) Objective mens rea and mistake |
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
(iv) Strict liability and mistake |
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
(v) Ignorance, mistake of fact, and defences |
|
|
788 | (4) |
|
(vi) Mistake of fact and mistake about an applicable standard |
|
|
792 | (1) |
|
§ 18.2 Ignorance and mistake of law |
|
|
793 | (7) |
|
(i) Mistake or ignorance of law: Construing offences |
|
|
795 | (1) |
|
(ii) Mistake or ignorance of law: Abuse of process, and the right to fair trial |
|
|
796 | (3) |
|
(iii) Ignorance of law and Article 7 of the ECHR |
|
|
799 | (1) |
|
|
|
800 | (14) |
|
(i) Intoxication and prior-fault inculpation |
|
|
801 | (3) |
|
(ii) Element 1: Voluntary intoxication |
|
|
804 | (3) |
|
(iii) Element 2: Dangerous drug |
|
|
807 | (1) |
|
(iv) Element 3: Basic intent offence (or "Dutch courage") |
|
|
808 | (3) |
|
(v) Element 4: Causal relationship |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
(vi) Intoxication and defences |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
(vii) Reforming the intoxication rules |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
§ 18.4 Overlapping explanations: Intoxication, automatism, and insanity |
|
|
814 | (7) |
|
19 Irresponsibility Defences |
|
|
821 | (28) |
|
|
|
821 | (5) |
|
(i) Removal to a mental hospital by order of the Home Secretary |
|
|
822 | (1) |
|
|
|
822 | (4) |
|
|
|
826 | (18) |
|
(i) Preliminary points on structure and process |
|
|
827 | (3) |
|
|
|
830 | (9) |
|
(iii) Insanity and the ECHR |
|
|
839 | (1) |
|
(iv) Reform of insanity law |
|
|
840 | (4) |
|
|
|
844 | (5) |
|
(i) Children below the age of 10 years |
|
|
844 | (1) |
|
(ii) Children between the age of 10 and 13 years (inclusive) |
|
|
845 | (2) |
|
(iii) Adolescents between the age of 14 and 18 years |
|
|
847 | (2) |
|
20 Defences of Circumstantial Pressure |
|
|
849 | (30) |
|
|
|
849 | (14) |
|
|
|
851 | (2) |
|
(ii) Element 1: X's threat and demand |
|
|
853 | (6) |
|
(iii) Element 2: D's response |
|
|
859 | (2) |
|
(iv) A rationale of duress |
|
|
861 | (2) |
|
§ 20.2 Duress of circumstances |
|
|
863 | (3) |
|
(i) Duress of circumstances distinguished from duress by threats |
|
|
863 | (1) |
|
(ii) Duress of circumstances distinguished from necessity |
|
|
864 | (2) |
|
§ 20.3 Defence for slavery or trafficking victims |
|
|
866 | (3) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
869 | (1) |
|
|
|
870 | (1) |
|
|
|
871 | (8) |
|
(i) Definition: State or private actors |
|
|
872 | (2) |
|
(ii) Definition: Nature and degree of encouragement |
|
|
874 | (2) |
|
|
|
876 | (3) |
|
|
|
879 | (48) |
|
|
|
880 | (5) |
|
|
|
880 | (2) |
|
(ii) Is the "consent" genuine? |
|
|
882 | (1) |
|
(iii) Is the consent disallowed? |
|
|
883 | (2) |
|
§ 21.2 Self-defence and the prevention of crime |
|
|
885 | (25) |
|
|
|
887 | (3) |
|
(ii) Element 1: Was it sufficiently necessary to use any force? |
|
|
890 | (8) |
|
(iii) Element 2: Was the force used reasonable? |
|
|
898 | (2) |
|
(iv) Exceptional categories |
|
|
900 | (9) |
|
(v) European Convention on Human Rights |
|
|
909 | (1) |
|
§ 21.3 Defence of property |
|
|
910 | (2) |
|
|
|
912 | (15) |
|
(i) Recognition of a necessity defence |
|
|
914 | (1) |
|
(ii) The rationale and ambit of necessity |
|
|
915 | (6) |
|
(iii) Limiting necessity: Legislative priority and direct-action protest |
|
|
921 | (4) |
|
|
|
925 | (2) |
|
22 Defences and Blame: Some Observations |
|
|
927 | (20) |
|
§ 22.1 Some things defences cannot do |
|
|
928 | (8) |
|
(i) Justifications and divergent values |
|
|
928 | (2) |
|
|
|
930 | (2) |
|
(iii) Responsibility and free will: A deterministic universe |
|
|
932 | (1) |
|
(iv) Responsibility and free will: Character and capacity |
|
|
933 | (3) |
|
§ 22.2 Some things the defences fail to do |
|
|
936 | (6) |
|
(i) Irresponsibility defences |
|
|
936 | (4) |
|
(ii) When conformity with law cannot reasonably be expected |
|
|
940 | (2) |
|
§ 22.3 Defence doctrine and judicial creativity |
|
|
942 | (5) |
| Bibliography |
|
947 | (40) |
| Index |
|
987 | |
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