Foreword |
|
xv | |
Preface |
|
xvii | |
|
1 Preparedness for climate change impact on slope safety |
|
|
1 | (44) |
|
|
|
|
|
1 | (1) |
|
1.1 JTC1 initiative on climate change impact on slope safety |
|
|
2 | (1) |
|
1.2 Key findings of different countries/regions |
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
1.3 Prediction of changing weather pattern |
|
|
4 | (3) |
|
|
5 | (1) |
|
1.3.2 Predictions and uncertainties |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
1.3.3 Potential landslide risk and current climate models |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
1.4 Changing landslide pattern under changing climate |
|
|
7 | (12) |
|
1.4.1 Types of landslides |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
1.4.2 Key climate change factors |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
1.4.3 Issues hampering understanding of climate change impact on landslide occurrence |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
1.4.4 What is an extreme event? |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
1.4.5 Extreme weather events |
|
|
10 | (1) |
|
1.4.6 Extreme landslide scenarios |
|
|
10 | (1) |
|
1.4.7 Approaches to quantify impact of climate change on slope safety |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.4.7.1 Mechanics-based models |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
1.4.7.2 Systems-based scenario assessment |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
1.4.7.3 Key findings from scenario-based assessments |
|
|
13 | (1) |
|
|
14 | (2) |
|
1.4.8 Does climate change need to be a priority in landslide risk assessment? |
|
|
16 | (1) |
|
|
17 | (1) |
|
|
18 | (1) |
|
1.5 Landslide risk management |
|
|
19 | (7) |
|
1.5.1 Quantifying the uncertainties |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
1.5.2 Insights from scenario-based assessments |
|
|
20 | (1) |
|
1.5.3 Managing extreme weather events |
|
|
21 | (1) |
|
1.5.4 Institutional issues and addressing the policy gap |
|
|
22 | (1) |
|
1.5.5 Application of improved technology and methods |
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
1.5.6 National and international cooperation |
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
1.5.7 Coordination with flood risk management experts |
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
1.5.8 Enhanced communication |
|
|
25 | (1) |
|
1.5.9 Formulating strategies for a way forward |
|
|
25 | (1) |
|
|
26 | (1) |
|
1.6.1 Need for more geotechnical research |
|
|
26 | (1) |
|
1.6.2 Enhanced emergency preparedness for extreme weather events |
|
|
27 | (1) |
|
|
27 | (18) |
|
|
29 | (1) |
|
|
29 | (2) |
|
|
31 | (12) |
|
|
43 | (2) |
|
2 Technical report on landslide related disasters in Brazil |
|
|
45 | (26) |
|
|
|
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
2.2 Rainfall variability over space and time |
|
|
46 | (2) |
|
2.3 Relation between rainfall and landslides |
|
|
48 | (4) |
|
2.4 Landslide disasters study cases |
|
|
52 | (19) |
|
|
68 | (3) |
|
3 Potential impacts of climate change on landslides occurrence in Canada |
|
|
71 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
71 | (5) |
|
3.2 Climate change projections in the context of slope stability |
|
|
76 | (4) |
|
3.2.1 Climate change - background |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
|
77 | (1) |
|
|
78 | (1) |
|
|
78 | (2) |
|
3.3 Illustration of potential impacts of climate change on slope stability |
|
|
80 | (2) |
|
3.4 Landslide response to warming |
|
|
82 | (10) |
|
3.4.1 Glacial conditioning |
|
|
82 | (5) |
|
3.4.2 Permafrost degradation and landslides |
|
|
87 | (2) |
|
3.4.3 Ice cover reduction, coastal erosion and landsliding |
|
|
89 | (3) |
|
3.5 Landslide response to increased precipitation |
|
|
92 | (3) |
|
3.5.1 Rapid response landslides |
|
|
92 | (2) |
|
3.5.2 Delayed response landslides |
|
|
94 | (1) |
|
|
95 | (10) |
|
3.6.1 The current situation |
|
|
96 | (1) |
|
3.6.2 Downscaling the climatic models |
|
|
96 | (1) |
|
3.6.3 Relative impacts of human activities |
|
|
97 | (1) |
|
3.6.4 Adaptation and mitigation |
|
|
97 | (1) |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
|
98 | (7) |
|
4 Enhancing slope safety preparedness for extreme rainfall and potential climate change impacts in Hong Kong |
|
|
105 | (46) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
4.2 Evolvement of slope safety system up to 2008 |
|
|
106 | (3) |
|
4.3 The severe rainstorm in June 2008 |
|
|
109 | (3) |
|
4.4 Consideration of extreme rainfall events |
|
|
112 | (23) |
|
4.4.1 Climate change and rainfall studies |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
4.4.1.1 Globally observed changes in extreme rainfall and future projections |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
4.4.2 Observed changes in extreme rainfall over China and future projections |
|
|
114 | (1) |
|
4.4.3 Observed changes in extreme rainfall in Hong Kong |
|
|
115 | (2) |
|
4.4.4 Downscaling strategy in climate projection |
|
|
117 | (1) |
|
4.4.5 Rainfall projections for Hong Kong in the 21st century |
|
|
118 | (1) |
|
4.4.6 Recent update of Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) estimate for Hong Kong |
|
|
118 | (4) |
|
4.4.7 Geological evidence on relationship between landslide activity and climate change |
|
|
122 | (2) |
|
4.4.8 Landslide patterns corresponding to extreme rainfall |
|
|
124 | (1) |
|
4.4.9 Rainfall-landslide correlations for man-made slopes |
|
|
124 | (2) |
|
4.4.10 Rainfall-landslide correlations for natural hillsides |
|
|
126 | (1) |
|
4.4.11 Extreme rainfall scenarios |
|
|
127 | (2) |
|
4.4.12 Change in landslide portfolio with development of extreme rainfall |
|
|
129 | (1) |
|
4.4.13 Assessment of extreme landslide scenarios |
|
|
129 | (2) |
|
4.4.14 Impact of Level-1 extreme rainfall |
|
|
131 | (1) |
|
4.4.15 Impact of Level-2 extreme rainfall based on 85%/90% PMP1999 |
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
4.4.16 Impact of Level-2 extreme rainfall based on transposition of Typhoon Morakot to Hong Kong with climate change effect projected to the end of 21st century |
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
4.4.17 Landslide risk due to extreme rainfall and climate change |
|
|
133 | (1) |
|
4.4.18 Evaluating the capacity of landslide emergency management system |
|
|
134 | (1) |
|
4.5 Adaptation strategies for managing extreme landslide events |
|
|
135 | (6) |
|
4.5.1 Promulgate enhanced technical guidance and promote more robust mitigation measures |
|
|
136 | (1) |
|
4.5.2 Low-frequency, large-magnitude landslides |
|
|
137 | (1) |
|
4.5.3 Systematic implementation of mitigation measures on existing features posing highest risks to community |
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
4.5.4 Improving crisis preparedness |
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
4.5.5 Enhancing and streamlining landslide emergency services |
|
|
139 | (1) |
|
4.5.6 Enhancing landslide warning system |
|
|
140 | (1) |
|
4.5.7 Enhancing coordination of Government emergency services |
|
|
140 | (1) |
|
|
141 | (2) |
|
4.6.1 Strengthening and streamlining existing landslide emergency system |
|
|
141 | (1) |
|
4.6.2 Need to consider concurrent multiple hazard scenarios |
|
|
142 | (1) |
|
4.6.3 New strategy for landslide emergency management under extreme rainfall condition |
|
|
142 | (1) |
|
|
143 | (1) |
|
4.8 Discussion and conclusions |
|
|
144 | (7) |
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
|
146 | (5) |
|
5 Potential climate changes in Italy and consequences for land stability |
|
|
151 | (48) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
151 | (1) |
|
|
152 | (1) |
|
5.2 Present and future climate trends in Italy |
|
|
152 | (8) |
|
|
152 | (1) |
|
5.2.2 Evidence of climate changes in atmospheric patterns in Italy |
|
|
153 | (4) |
|
5.2.3 Climate change scenarios in Italy |
|
|
157 | (3) |
|
5.3 Influence of weather on landsliding in Italy |
|
|
160 | (9) |
|
5.3.1 Rock failures on cliffs and steep rock slopes |
|
|
161 | (1) |
|
|
162 | (1) |
|
5.3.3 Rapid shallow slides and flowslides in coarse-grained soils |
|
|
163 | (2) |
|
5.3.4 Rapid shallow slides in cohesive soils |
|
|
165 | (1) |
|
5.3.5 Slow to very slow translational slides in cohesive soils |
|
|
165 | (2) |
|
|
167 | (2) |
|
5.4 Effects of the expected climate change |
|
|
169 | (13) |
|
|
169 | (1) |
|
|
170 | (1) |
|
5.4.2.1 Considered case histories |
|
|
170 | (4) |
|
5.4.2.2 Climate modelling performance and potential future slope behaviour |
|
|
174 | (3) |
|
5.4.2.3 Evaluation of the potential effects of climate changes in Orvieto and Cervinara areas |
|
|
177 | (2) |
|
5.4.3 Further considerations on the potential effects of climate changes on the hydrological slope response |
|
|
179 | (3) |
|
5.5 Landslide risk and implications for mitigation and adaptation strategies |
|
|
182 | (7) |
|
5.5.1 Expected variations in landslide risk due to climatic and environmental changes |
|
|
185 | (2) |
|
|
187 | (1) |
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
|
189 | (10) |
|
|
190 | (9) |
|
6 Global warming and landslide disaster: evidence from Japan |
|
|
199 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
199 | (1) |
|
|
199 | (1) |
|
6.2 Precipitation over Japan |
|
|
200 | (2) |
|
|
202 | (7) |
|
6.3.1 Deep-seated landslides in Kii Peninsula triggered by Typhoon Talas in 2011 |
|
|
203 | (1) |
|
6.3.2 Landslides in Oshima triggered by Typhoon Wipha in 2013 |
|
|
204 | (1) |
|
6.3.3 Landslides in Hiroshima triggered by heavy rainfall in 2014 |
|
|
205 | (4) |
|
6.4 On long-term variation in frequency of flooding |
|
|
209 | (2) |
|
|
211 | (4) |
|
|
212 | (3) |
|
7 Landslide risk management in Norway |
|
|
215 | (38) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
215 | (1) |
|
|
216 | (2) |
|
7.2 Landslide hazard and risk in Norway |
|
|
218 | (11) |
|
7.2.1 General situation, major landslides |
|
|
218 | (3) |
|
7.2.2 Catastrophic rock slope failures and displacement waves |
|
|
221 | (1) |
|
7.2.2.1 Case: the 1934 Tafjord disaster |
|
|
222 | (1) |
|
7.2.3 Water-triggered landslides |
|
|
223 | (2) |
|
7.2.3.1 Case 1: Kvam 2011/2013 |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
7.2.3.2 Case 2: Byneset 2012 |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
7.2.3.3 Case 3: Southeast Norway 2000 (Jaedicke et al., 2008b) |
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
7.2.4 Landslides triggered by human activities |
|
|
227 | (2) |
|
7.3 Climate and demographical changes in the coming years |
|
|
229 | (4) |
|
7.3.1 General research on climate change in Norway |
|
|
229 | (1) |
|
7.3.2 Changes in weather patterns in the context of slope stability |
|
|
230 | (1) |
|
7.3.3 Changes in demography and infrastructure |
|
|
231 | (2) |
|
7.4 Landslide risk assessment and management in a changing climate |
|
|
233 | (8) |
|
7.4.1 State-of-the-art landslide risk assessment methodologies in use |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
7.4.2.1 Climate and transport |
|
|
235 | (2) |
|
7.4.2.2 GeoExtreme (Jaedicke et al., 2008a) |
|
|
237 | (1) |
|
7.4.2.3 InfraRisk (NGI, 2013) |
|
|
238 | (1) |
|
7.4.2.4 SafeLand (Nadim and Kalsnes, 2014) |
|
|
238 | (2) |
|
|
240 | (1) |
|
|
240 | (1) |
|
7.5 Regulation and policy issues |
|
|
241 | (4) |
|
7.5.1 Institutional framework |
|
|
241 | (2) |
|
7.5.2 Role of municipalities |
|
|
243 | (1) |
|
|
243 | (1) |
|
7.5.4 Mapping of landslide hazards |
|
|
244 | (1) |
|
|
244 | (1) |
|
7.5.6 Protection measures |
|
|
245 | (1) |
|
|
245 | (4) |
|
7.6.1 Emergency preparedness |
|
|
245 | (1) |
|
7.6.2 Regional early warning service for landslides |
|
|
246 | (1) |
|
7.6.3 Early warning service - large rockslides |
|
|
247 | (2) |
|
7.6.4 Quick clay slides in a city |
|
|
249 | (1) |
|
|
249 | (4) |
|
|
250 | (3) |
|
8 Overview of landslides distribution in Russian Federation and variations of their activity due to climate change |
|
|
253 | (36) |
|
|
|
|
253 | (2) |
|
8.2 Regional factors influencing landslides distribution within the territory of Russian Federation |
|
|
255 | (3) |
|
8.3 Slowly changing factors and their influence on the rapidly changing factors controlling landslide activity in Russia |
|
|
258 | (5) |
|
8.4 Variation of landslides activity in different regions of Russian Federation due to climate change |
|
|
263 | (23) |
|
8.4.1 Zone of the thawed and unfrozen soils |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
8.4.1.1 Southern region of the European part of Russia |
|
|
263 | (11) |
|
8.4.1.2 Central region of the European part of Russia |
|
|
274 | (5) |
|
8.4.1.3 The Southern Siberian region |
|
|
279 | (2) |
|
8.4.2 The permafrost zone |
|
|
281 | (5) |
|
|
286 | (3) |
|
|
286 | (3) |
|
9 Slope safety preparedness in Southeast Asia for effects of climate change |
|
|
289 | (62) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
289 | (14) |
|
9.1.1 Global climate change and its impact on slope stability |
|
|
289 | (11) |
|
9.1.2 Slope safety preparedness for effects of climate change in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam |
|
|
300 | (3) |
|
9.2 Slope safety preparedness for effects of climate change in Singapore |
|
|
303 | (12) |
|
9.2.1 Singapore's slope preparedness |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
9.2.2 Singapore's resilience strategy |
|
|
303 | (3) |
|
9.2.3 Singapore Land Authority (SLA) |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
9.2.4 SHARES - Slope Hazard Analysis & Repository System |
|
|
306 | (3) |
|
9.2.5 Building and Construction Authority (BCA) |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
9.2.6 BCA preparedness to safeguard slope safety and slope protection structure resilience |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
9.2.7 Regulation of structural safety |
|
|
310 | (2) |
|
9.2.8 3-Stages slope management framework |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
9.2.9 Periodic Structural Inspection (PSI) |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
9.2.10 BCA's response management against landslides and slope failure |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
9.3 Slope safety preparedness for effects of climate change in Malaysia |
|
|
315 | (7) |
|
9.3.1 Slope safety preparedness in Malaysia |
|
|
315 | (7) |
|
9.4 Slope safety preparedness for effects of climate change in Indonesia |
|
|
322 | (6) |
|
9.4.1 Background on slope stability problems in Indonesia |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
9.4.2 Landslides statistics in Indonesia and the existence of clay shales |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
9.4.3 Clay shales and expansive soils |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
9.4.4 Reactivation of old landslides |
|
|
324 | (4) |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
9.5 Slope safety preparedness for Thailand |
|
|
328 | (6) |
|
9.5.1 Background on slope stability problems in Thailand |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
9.5.2 Highlights of research findings on pore water pressure variation with rainfall |
|
|
329 | (3) |
|
9.5.3 Soil bio-engineering |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
9.5.4 Adaptation and emergency preparedness |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
9.6 Slope safety preparedness in Vietnam for effects of climate change |
|
|
334 | (17) |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
9.6.2 Climate change and sea level rise in Vietnam |
|
|
335 | (1) |
|
|
335 | (1) |
|
9.6.2.2 Rainfall and tropical cyclones |
|
|
335 | (1) |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
9.6.3 Landslides due to rainfall |
|
|
337 | (2) |
|
9.6.4 Stability problems in the seadike system in Vietnam |
|
|
339 | (2) |
|
9.6.5 Adaptation to sea level rise |
|
|
341 | (2) |
|
9.6.6 Summary 343 References |
|
|
343 | (8) |
|
10 Review of landslide occurrence in Spain and its relation to climate |
|
|
351 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
351 | (1) |
|
10.1 Context of landslide occurrence in Spain |
|
|
351 | (6) |
|
|
353 | (2) |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
10.2 Climatic triggers of landslides in Spain |
|
|
357 | (5) |
|
10.2.1 Landslides-climatic scenarios in Spain |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
10.2.1.1 High intensity short-lasting rain storms |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
10.2.1.2 Low to moderate intensity rainfall episodes |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
10.2.1.3 Abnormal seasonal or annual rainfall |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
10.3 Historical extreme landsliding events |
|
|
362 | (2) |
|
10.4 Projected changes in weather pattern upon climate change |
|
|
364 | (3) |
|
10.5 Expected changes in landslide pattern given climate change |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
10.6 Climate change adaptation strategies for changing landslide pattern |
|
|
368 | (3) |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
10.8 Key conclusions/recommendations on the way forward |
|
|
372 | (7) |
|
|
373 | (6) |
|
11 TR3 project: slope safety preparedness for effects of climate change contribution for Switzerland |
|
|
379 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
11.2 Geographical framework |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
11.3 Landslide types in Switzerland |
|
|
381 | (2) |
|
11.4 Climate change trend in Switzerland |
|
|
383 | (2) |
|
11.5 Federal prevention strategy |
|
|
385 | (4) |
|
11.6 The different levels of prevention action |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
11.7 Protection objectives |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
11.8 Town and country planning actions |
|
|
391 | (2) |
|
11.9 General adaptation measures to climate change in Switzerland |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
11.10 Contribution of research to slope safety preparedness |
|
|
394 | (3) |
|
11.11 Specific adaptation measures to climate change in Switzerland with respect to landslides |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
11.12 Stabilization of La Frasse landslide |
|
|
397 | (2) |
|
11.13 Management of the village of Braunwald located on a slowly moving landslide |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
11.14 Protection action following a large debris flow affecting the town of Brienz |
|
|
400 | (3) |
|
11.15 Future evolution of risk situation in Switzerland |
|
|
403 | (2) |
|
|
405 | (4) |
|
|
406 | (1) |
|
|
406 | (3) |
|
12 Review of landslide occurrence and climate change in Taiwan |
|
|
409 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
|
409 | (2) |
|
12.2 Projection of climate change in Taiwan |
|
|
411 | (5) |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
|
413 | (2) |
|
12.2.3 Projection of future climate change in Taiwan |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
|
416 | (1) |
|
12.3 The rainfall factor of climate change on slope stability and landslide risk in Taiwan |
|
|
416 | (9) |
|
12.3.1 Landslide events and triggering factors |
|
|
416 | (2) |
|
12.3.2 Extreme landslide events and extreme rainfall from typhoons |
|
|
418 | (2) |
|
12.3.3 The correlation of rainfall and landslides |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
12.3.4 Effects of climatic changes on landslide occurrence |
|
|
421 | (4) |
|
12.4 Implications on landslide risk management and adaptation strategies |
|
|
425 | (9) |
|
12.4.1 Framework for the development of a landslide risk map |
|
|
425 | (6) |
|
12.4.2 Landslide disaster: impacts and challenges |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
12.4.3 Landslide risk management, adaptation strategies, and policy considerations in Taiwan |
|
|
432 | (2) |
|
|
434 | (3) |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
|
435 | (2) |
|
13 Landslides and climate change in the United Kingdom |
|
|
437 | (42) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
13.2 Landsliding in the UK |
|
|
437 | (7) |
|
13.2.1 National Landslide Database (NLD) |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
13.2.2 Landslide potential |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
|
441 | (3) |
|
13.3 The climate change context |
|
|
444 | (6) |
|
13.3.1 Historical and future trends in rainfall |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
13.3.2 Regional projections for the UK |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
13.3.3 General overview of UKCP09 projections |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
13.3.4 Projection of precipitation and heavy rainfall events |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
13.3.5 Projections of mid-latitude depressions and storms |
|
|
447 | (3) |
|
13.3.6 Sea level rise and storm surges |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
13.4 Climate change and slope stability |
|
|
450 | (14) |
|
13.4.1 Climate change and coastal slopes |
|
|
457 | (4) |
|
13.4.2 Climate change and engineered slopes |
|
|
461 | (3) |
|
13.5 Landslide hazard and risk management and adaptation strategies |
|
|
464 | (4) |
|
13.5.1 Regulatory framework |
|
|
464 | (2) |
|
13.5.2 Adaptation strategies; The Natural Hazards Partnership (NHP) |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
13.5.3 Changes in vulnerability and risk |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
|
468 | (11) |
|
13.6.1 Uncertainties still to be addressed |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
13.6.2 Communicating for adaptation and design in a changing climate |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
471 | (8) |
|
14 Landslide hazards and climate change: A perspective from the United States |
|
|
479 | (46) |
|
|
|
479 | (2) |
|
14.2 Landslides in the United States |
|
|
481 | (6) |
|
14.3 Observed and predicted environmental changes in the United States |
|
|
487 | (7) |
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Snow, ice cover, and permafrost |
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
14.3.4 Drought and wildfire |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
14.3.5 Evapotranspiration |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
|
490 | (3) |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
14.4 Landslide research related to environmental changes |
|
|
494 | (13) |
|
14.4.1 Landslide response related to changes in temperature |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
14.4.1.2 Degradation of permafrost in rock |
|
|
496 | (3) |
|
14.4.1.3 Degradation of permafrost in soil |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
14.4.1.4 Increased sea level |
|
|
499 | (3) |
|
14.4.1.5 Changes in drought and wildfire |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
14.4.2 Landslide response related to changes in precipitation |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.1 Accounting for changing evapotranspiration |
|
|
503 | (3) |
|
14.4.2.2 Not accounting for changing evapotranspiration |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
14.5 Adaptation strategies in the United States |
|
|
507 | (2) |
|
|
509 | (16) |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
|
510 | (15) |
|
|
525 | (24) |
|
|
527 | (6) |
|
|
533 | (6) |
|
|
539 | (6) |
|
|
545 | (4) |
Subject Index |
|
549 | |