Preface to the Second Edition |
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xv | |
Preface to the First Edition |
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xvii | |
Acknowledgments |
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xix | |
Authors |
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xxi | |
Chapter 1 Measuring Solar and Infrared Radiation |
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1 | (6) |
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5 | (1) |
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5 | (2) |
Chapter 2 Definitions and Terminology |
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7 | (26) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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2.3 Extraterrestrial Radiation |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (5) |
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2.5 Zenith, Azimuth, and Hour Angles |
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14 | (1) |
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2.6 Solar, Universal, and Local Standard Time |
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15 | (1) |
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2.7 Solar Position Calculation Example |
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16 | (4) |
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2.8 Sunrise and Sunset Times |
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20 | (1) |
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2.9 Global, Direct Normal, and Diffuse Irradiance |
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20 | (3) |
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2.10 Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces |
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23 | (1) |
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2.11 The Spectral Nature of Solar Radiation |
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23 | (3) |
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2.12 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer |
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26 | (2) |
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26 | (1) |
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27 | (1) |
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2.12.3 Radiative Heat Transfer |
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28 | (1) |
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2.13 Photodiodes and Solar Cell Characteristics |
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28 | (2) |
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30 | (1) |
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30 | (1) |
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30 | (3) |
Chapter 3 Historic Milestones in Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurement |
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33 | (36) |
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33 | (1) |
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3.2 Earliest Observations of the Sun and the Nature of Light |
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33 | (4) |
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3.3 Nineteenth-Century Radiometers |
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37 | (4) |
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3.3.1 Pouillet's Pyrheliometer (1837) |
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37 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder (1853, 1879) |
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37 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Angstrom Electrical Compensation Pyrheliometer (1893) |
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38 | (2) |
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3.3.4 Callendar Pyranometer (1898) |
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40 | (1) |
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3.3.5 Angstrom and Tulipan Pyrgeometers (1899) |
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41 | (1) |
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3.4 Operational Radiometers of the Twentieth Century |
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41 | (20) |
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3.4.1 Abbot Silver-Disk Pyrheliometer (1906) |
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41 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Smithsonian Water-Flow Pyrheliometer (1910) |
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43 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Marvin Pyrheliometer (1910) |
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43 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Angstrom Pyranometer (1919) |
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44 | (1) |
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3.4.5 Kipp & Zonen Solarimeter (1924) |
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44 | (1) |
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3.4.6 Robitzsch Bimetallic Actinograph (1932) |
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45 | (1) |
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3.4.7 Eppley 180° Pyrheliometer (1930) |
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46 | (2) |
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3.4.8 Eppley Model PSP (1957) |
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48 | (1) |
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3.4.9 Yanishevsky Pyranometer (1957) |
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49 | (2) |
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3.4.10 Eppley Model NIP (1957) |
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51 | (2) |
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3.4.11 Eppley Model Precision Infrared Radiometer (PIR) (1968) |
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53 | (1) |
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3.4.12 Primary Absolute Cavity Radiometer (PACRAD) (1969) |
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54 | (1) |
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3.4.13 Eppley Model 8-48 (1969) |
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55 | (1) |
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3.4.14 LI-COR Model LI-200SA (1971) |
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56 | (1) |
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3.4.15 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer (1975) |
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57 | (3) |
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3.4.16 World Standard Group (1979) |
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60 | (1) |
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3.5 Recent Advances in Solar Measurements |
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61 | (4) |
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3.5.1 Automatic Hickey-Frieden Cavity Radiometer |
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61 | (2) |
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3.5.2 Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM) |
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63 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Cryogenic Solar Absolute Radiometer-Measure the Integral Transmittance (CSAR-MITRA) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (4) |
Chapter 4 Direct Normal Irradiance |
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69 | (22) |
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4.1 Overview of Direct Normal Irradiance |
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69 | (3) |
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4.2 Pyrheliometer Geometry |
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72 | (2) |
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4.3 Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers |
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74 | (3) |
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4.4 Absolute Cavity Radiometers |
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77 | (1) |
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4.5 Uncertainty Analysis for Pyrheliometer Calibration |
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78 | (2) |
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4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Operational Thermopile Pyrheliometers |
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80 | (3) |
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4.6.1 Window Transmittance, Receiver Absorptivity, and Temperature Sensitivity |
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81 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Solar Zenith Angle Dependence |
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81 | (2) |
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4.7 Uncertainty Analysis for Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Estimates of Direct Normal Irradiance |
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83 | (1) |
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4.8 Direct Normal Irradiance Models |
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84 | (2) |
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4.8.1 Ground-Based Modeling |
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84 | (1) |
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4.8.2 Satellite Model Estimates |
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84 | (2) |
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4.9 Historical and Current Surface-Measured Direct Normal Irradiance Data |
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86 | (2) |
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4.10 Current Issues Regarding Direct Normal Irradiance Measurements |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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89 | (2) |
Chapter 5 Broadband Global Irradiance |
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91 | (60) |
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5.1 Introduction to Global Horizontal Irradiance Measurements |
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91 | (6) |
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5.2 Black-Disk Thermopile Pyranometers |
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97 | (14) |
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101 | (2) |
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103 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Angle of Incidence Response |
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104 | (3) |
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5.2.5 Response Degradation |
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107 | (1) |
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5.2.6 Temperature Dependence |
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108 | (1) |
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5.2.7 Ice and Snow on Dome-Ventilators |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (2) |
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5.3 Black-and-White Pyranometers |
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111 | (4) |
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5.3.1 Characteristics of Black-and-White Pyranometers |
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111 | (3) |
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5.3.2 Lack of Thermal Offset |
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114 | (1) |
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5.4 Photodiode-Based Pyranometers |
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115 | (16) |
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5.4.1 Characterizing a Photodiode Pyranometer |
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121 | (3) |
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5.4.2 Removing Biases in Photodiode Pyranometer Measurements |
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124 | (6) |
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5.4.3 Reference Solar Cells |
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130 | (1) |
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5.5 Calibration of Pyranometers |
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131 | (6) |
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5.5.1 Shade-Unshade Calibration Method |
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132 | (3) |
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5.5.2 Summation Method Calibration |
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135 | (2) |
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5.6 Pyranometer Calibration Uncertainties |
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137 | (8) |
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5.6.1 Uncertainty Analysis Applied to Pyranometer Calibration |
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139 | (2) |
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5.6.2 An Example of the GUM Procedure Applied to the Calibration Uncertainties of a Pyranometer |
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141 | (3) |
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5.6.3 Importance of Understanding Limitations of Percent Uncertainties |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (3) |
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149 | (2) |
Chapter 6 Diffuse Irradiance |
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151 | (10) |
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151 | (1) |
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6.2 Atmospheric Scattering Concepts |
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151 | (2) |
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6.3 Measuring Diffuse Irradiance |
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153 | (4) |
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6.3.1 Fixed Shadowband Measurements of Diffuse Irradiance |
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153 | (2) |
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6.3.2 Calculated Diffuse Irradiance versus Shading Disk Diffuse |
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155 | (1) |
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6.3.3 Rotating Shadowband Diffuse Measurements |
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156 | (1) |
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6.4 Calibration of Diffuse Pyranometers |
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157 | (1) |
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6.5 Value of Accurate Diffuse Measurements |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
Chapter 7 Solar Spectral Measurements |
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161 | (32) |
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161 | (1) |
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7.2 The Extraterrestrial Solar Spectrum |
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161 | (2) |
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7.3 Atmospheric Interactions |
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163 | (7) |
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7.3.1 Rayleigh Scattering |
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163 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Aerosol Scattering and Absorption |
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163 | (2) |
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165 | (4) |
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7.3.4 Transmission of the Atmosphere |
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169 | (1) |
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7.4 Broad Filter Radiometry |
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170 | (5) |
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170 | (3) |
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7.4.2 Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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7.5 Narrow-Band Filter Radiometry |
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175 | (6) |
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7.5.1 Aerosol Optical Depth |
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175 | (2) |
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177 | (2) |
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179 | (2) |
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181 | (7) |
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182 | (4) |
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186 | (2) |
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7.6.3 Discrete Spectral Measurements and Modeling Combined |
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188 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
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189 | (4) |
Chapter 8 Albedo |
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193 | (12) |
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193 | (1) |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (5) |
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8.4 Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (2) |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (3) |
Chapter 9 Measuring Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface |
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205 | (10) |
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205 | (1) |
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9.2 Effect of Tilt on Single Black Detector Pyranometers |
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206 | (2) |
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9.3 Effect of Tilt on Black-and-White Pyranometers |
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208 | (1) |
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9.4 Effect of Tilt on Photodiode Pyranometers |
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209 | (2) |
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9.5 Recommendations for Tilted Irradiance Measurements |
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211 | (1) |
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9.6 Modeling Photovoltaic System Performance with Data from |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (1) |
Chapter 10 Shadowband Radiometers |
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215 | (14) |
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215 | (1) |
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10.2 Introduction to the Rotating Shadowband Radiometer |
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215 | (2) |
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10.3 Rotating Shadowband Radiometer Using Silicon Detector |
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217 | (6) |
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10.4 Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer |
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223 | (2) |
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10.5 SPN1 Sunshine Pyranometer |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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227 | (2) |
Chapter 11 Infrared Measurements |
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229 | (12) |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (3) |
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233 | (2) |
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11.4 Improved Calibrations |
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235 | (1) |
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11.5 Other Pyrgeometer Manufacturers |
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236 | (1) |
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11.6 Operational Considerations |
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236 | (3) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (2) |
Chapter 12 Net Radiation Measurements |
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241 | (8) |
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241 | (1) |
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12.2 Single-Sensor (All-Wave) Net Radiometers |
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242 | (2) |
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12.3 Two-Sensor Net Radiometers |
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244 | (1) |
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12.4 Four-Sensor Net Radiometers |
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245 | (1) |
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12.5 Accuracy of Net Radiometers |
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246 | (1) |
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12.6 A Better Net Radiation Standard |
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246 | (1) |
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12.7 Net Radiometer Sources |
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247 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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247 | (2) |
Chapter 13 Radiometer Calibrations |
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249 | (22) |
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249 | (6) |
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13.1.1 What Is Calibration? |
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249 | (3) |
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13.1.2 Why Is Calibration Needed? |
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252 | (1) |
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13.1.3 How Frequently Should a Radiometer Be Calibrated? |
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253 | (2) |
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13.2 Broadband Shortwave Radiometer Calibration |
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255 | (2) |
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13.3 Broadband Longwave Radiometer Calibration |
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257 | (5) |
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13.4 Spectral Calibrations |
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262 | (5) |
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13.4.1 The Measurement Equation |
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262 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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264 | (3) |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (4) |
Chapter 14 Ancillary Measurements |
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271 | (28) |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (3) |
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14.2.1 Types of Temperature Sensors |
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272 | (1) |
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272 | (1) |
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14.2.3 Measuring Temperature |
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272 | (2) |
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14.3 Wind Speed and Wind Direction |
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274 | (7) |
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14.3.1 Sensor Terminology |
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275 | (1) |
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275 | (1) |
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275 | (2) |
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14.3.4 Propeller Anemometers |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (1) |
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14.3.6 Installing Anemometers |
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278 | (1) |
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278 | (3) |
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281 | (1) |
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14.5 Atmospheric Water Vapor |
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282 | (2) |
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14.5.1 Using GPS Satellites to Measure Precipitable Water Vapor |
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283 | (1) |
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14.5.2 Installing a Global Positioning System Antenna |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (2) |
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14.6.1 Aneroid Displacement Transducers |
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284 | (1) |
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14.6.2 Piezoresistive Barometers |
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284 | (2) |
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14.6.3 Piezocapacitance Barometers |
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286 | (1) |
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286 | (6) |
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286 | (3) |
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289 | (3) |
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14.8 Circumsolar Instruments |
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292 | (3) |
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14.8.1 Sun and Aureole Measurement |
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292 | (1) |
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14.8.2 Attempts to Automatically and Continuously Monitor the Circumsolar Irradiance |
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292 | (2) |
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14.8.3 Use of the Sky Imager to Measure Circumsolar Irradiance |
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294 | (1) |
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14.8.4 Use of the Rotating Shadowband Radiometer |
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294 | (1) |
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14.9 Recommended Minimum Accuracies for Operational Instruments |
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295 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (3) |
Chapter 15 Solar Monitoring Station Best Practices |
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299 | (20) |
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299 | (1) |
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299 | (2) |
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15.3 Grounding and Shielding |
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301 | (1) |
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15.4 Data Logger and Communications |
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302 | (1) |
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15.5 Measurement Interval |
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303 | (2) |
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15.6 Cleaning and Maintenance |
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305 | (2) |
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307 | (2) |
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15.8 Importance of Reviewing Data |
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309 | (2) |
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15.9 Quality Control of Data |
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311 | (2) |
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313 | (2) |
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15.11 Physical Layout of a Solar-Monitoring Station |
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315 | (2) |
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317 | (1) |
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317 | (2) |
Chapter 16 Solar Radiation Estimates Derived from Satellite Images and Auxiliary Measurements |
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319 | (10) |
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319 | (1) |
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16.2 Geostationary Satellites |
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320 | (1) |
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16.3 Deriving Irradiance from Satellites |
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321 | (3) |
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321 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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16.3.4 Pixel-to-Cloud Index Conversion |
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322 | (1) |
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16.3.5 Cloud Index to Global Horizontal Irradiance Conversion |
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323 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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16.3.7 Diffuse Irradiance |
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324 | (1) |
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324 | (1) |
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16.4 Status of Satellite Irradiance Models |
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324 | (1) |
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16.5 Comments on Modeling and Measurement |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (1) |
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326 | (3) |
Appendix A: Measurement Uncertainty Principles |
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329 | (14) |
Appendix B: Modeling Solar Radiation |
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343 | (20) |
Appendix C: Sunshine Duration |
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363 | (2) |
Appendix D: Sun Path Charts |
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365 | (20) |
Appendix E: Solar Position Algorithms |
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385 | (8) |
Appendix F: Useful Conversion Factors |
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393 | (4) |
Appendix G: Sources for Equipment |
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397 | (4) |
Appendix H: BORCAL Report |
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401 | (34) |
Appendix I: Failure Modes |
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435 | (6) |
Appendix J: How to Build a Pyranometer with a Solar Cell or Photodiode |
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441 | (4) |
Appendix K: Content Required for a Comprehensive Datafile |
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445 | (10) |
Appendix L: Solar Radiation Databases |
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455 | (14) |
Answers to Chapter Questions |
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469 | (16) |
Index |
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485 | |