| Preface |
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vii | |
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Society, Space, and Behavior |
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1 | (30) |
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Spatial Behavior in a Changing World |
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1 | (1) |
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The Origin of Behavioral Analysis in Geography |
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1 | (2) |
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3 | (1) |
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3 | (1) |
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4 | (1) |
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Behavior in Space versus Spatial Behavior |
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4 | (3) |
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Dominant Characteristics of Spatial Behavior |
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7 | (3) |
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7 | (1) |
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New Models of Environment |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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The Basis for Generalization |
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10 | (1) |
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Issues in Research Design: Data Collection and Analysis |
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10 | (12) |
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Critical Questions for Researchers to Ask |
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10 | (1) |
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Some Methodological Considerations and Choices |
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11 | (2) |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (2) |
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16 | (3) |
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19 | (3) |
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Gender Roles in Fieldwork and Data Collection |
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22 | (1) |
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Society, Economy, and Space |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (3) |
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What Remains of the Positivist Tradition |
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23 | (1) |
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Alternative Epistemologies |
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24 | (1) |
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Cross-Disciplinary Enrichment |
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25 | (1) |
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A Paradigm for Understanding Human-Environment Relationships |
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26 | (2) |
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Spatial Behavioral Research Today |
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28 | (3) |
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Decision Making and Choice Behaviors |
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31 | (40) |
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Conceptualizing the Decision Process |
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31 | (1) |
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First Motivated Response: Activating the Decision-Making Process |
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32 | (2) |
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33 | (1) |
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Behavior-Space Perception |
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33 | (1) |
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Activating the Cognitive Map |
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34 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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34 | (2) |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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Normative Assumptions about Decisions and Behaviors |
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36 | (6) |
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42 | (1) |
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The Environments in Which Decisions Are Made |
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43 | (3) |
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43 | (1) |
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The Built Environment: Examples of Descriptive Theory |
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43 | (2) |
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Economic and Societal Environments |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (1) |
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Types of Systems and Societies |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (1) |
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Typologies of Decision-Making Theories and Models |
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48 | (11) |
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Classical Normative Theories and Models |
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48 | (4) |
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Behavioral Decision Models |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (3) |
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Choosing between Decision Models |
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57 | (2) |
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59 | (3) |
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Characteristics of a Decision Support System |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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Macro Behavioral Assumptions: Institutions, Strategies, and Policies |
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62 | (8) |
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A Framework for Planning and Decision Making in an Urban Setting |
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62 | (1) |
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Strategic Approaches to Decision Making |
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63 | (2) |
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The Harvard SWOT Analysis |
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65 | (4) |
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Plans, Policies, and Projects |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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The Big Picture: Processes of Economic, Technological, and Social Change |
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71 | (40) |
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71 | (2) |
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Globalization and the Processes of Internationalization |
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73 | (7) |
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The Emerging Multipolar Global Economy |
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74 | (4) |
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The New International Division of Labor |
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78 | (1) |
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The Transnational Corporation |
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78 | (2) |
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80 | (4) |
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Long Waves of Innovation and Economic Growth |
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81 | (1) |
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The Shrinking of Distance |
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82 | (2) |
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Implications of Globalization for Location Theory |
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84 | (8) |
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Basic Elements in the Production Process |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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Global Networks and Global Concentrations |
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87 | (3) |
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90 | (1) |
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A Model of Internationalized Operation for a Firm |
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90 | (2) |
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Structural Economic Change within Economies |
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92 | (8) |
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Changes in Employment in the United States Since 1970 |
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94 | (3) |
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Services within the Economies of the Newly Industrialized Countries |
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97 | (1) |
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Toward Small Business Growth and Female Employment in Part-Time Jobs |
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98 | (2) |
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Social and Demographic Change |
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100 | (8) |
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100 | (1) |
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The Growth and Decline of Regions: Components of Population Change |
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101 | (2) |
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Changing Age Structures: The ``Graying'' of Society |
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103 | (2) |
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Changing Household Structures |
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105 | (1) |
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Increasing Participation of Women in the Labor Force |
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106 | (1) |
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Racial and Ethnic Diversity |
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107 | (1) |
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The Victims of Globalization: An Emerging Underclass |
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108 | (3) |
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Urban Patterns and Trends |
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111 | (44) |
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111 | (1) |
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Changes in National Urban Systems |
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111 | (10) |
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112 | (2) |
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Suburbanization and Inner-City Decline |
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114 | (2) |
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Counterurbanization in the 1970s |
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116 | (2) |
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Resurgence of Metropolitan Concentration in the 1980s |
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118 | (2) |
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Concentration and Dispersal: A Matter of Scale |
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120 | (1) |
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The Polycentric Urban Form and Structure of the Information and Services City |
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121 | (7) |
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New Locational Forces in the Information and Services City |
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123 | (1) |
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The ``Edge City'' Phenomenon |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (2) |
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127 | (1) |
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Economic Performance and Employment in Cities: Trends and Patterns |
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128 | (6) |
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The United States Experience in the 1980s |
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128 | (3) |
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Employment Patterns within a World City: Sydney |
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131 | (2) |
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Implications for Commuting |
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133 | (1) |
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Urban Social Space and Residential Patterns |
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134 | (8) |
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The Notion of Social Space |
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134 | (3) |
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Ecological and Psychological Fallacy |
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137 | (1) |
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The Constructs of Territorial Social Space: Social Area Analysis |
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137 | (2) |
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Factorial Ecology Studies |
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139 | (1) |
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The Relationship between Social Space Dimensions and Territorial Space in Cities |
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139 | (3) |
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Socioeconomic Disadvantage in Urban Space |
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142 | (2) |
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Differences in Access Opportunity and Social Disadvantage |
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142 | (1) |
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142 | (2) |
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New Paradigms for the City |
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144 | (10) |
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A ``Metroplex'' of Spaces and Places |
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144 | (2) |
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Institutional Rigidities and the New Demands of the Services and Information Age |
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146 | (2) |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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Strategic Approaches to Regional Development and Planning |
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150 | (4) |
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The Interface of Macro and Micro Milieux |
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154 | (1) |
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Acquiring Spatial Knowledge |
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155 | (33) |
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Shifting to a Micro Behavioral Perspective |
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155 | (1) |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (2) |
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156 | (1) |
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The Psychological Definition of Spatial Abilities |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (5) |
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159 | (1) |
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159 | (4) |
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The Nature of Spatial Knowledge |
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163 | (2) |
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163 | (1) |
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Acquiring Spatial Knowledge |
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163 | (2) |
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Theories of the Development of Spatial Knowledge |
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165 | (4) |
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From Landmark to Route to Survey Knowledge |
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165 | (1) |
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The Siegel and White Hypothesis |
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165 | (2) |
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Anchorpoint Theory and Knowledge Hierarchies |
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167 | (2) |
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Children's Wayfinding Behavior: Case Studies |
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169 | (6) |
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Learning about One's Neighborhood |
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169 | (1) |
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Wayfinding in a Residential Neighborhood in Goleta, California |
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170 | (5) |
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Experiencing Environments |
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175 | (9) |
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Learning from Maps versus Learning from Travel |
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175 | (2) |
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177 | (3) |
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180 | (3) |
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183 | (1) |
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An Artifical Intelligence Model of Wayfinding |
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184 | (4) |
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Perception, Attitudes, and Risk |
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188 | (36) |
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The Experience and Conceptualization of Space |
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188 | (1) |
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A Problem of Defining Terms: What Are Perception and Cognition? |
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189 | (3) |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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Immediacy and Scale Dependence |
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191 | (1) |
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Factors Influencing the Nature and Structure of the Perceived Environment |
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192 | (8) |
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The Fuctionalist Approach |
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192 | (1) |
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Perception as an Encoding Process |
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192 | (2) |
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The Concept of Scale in Perception |
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194 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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Perception and the World of Identifiable Things |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (1) |
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Perceptual Focusing or Attention |
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195 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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Individual Needs and Values |
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197 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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Ecological and Anthropocentric Constraints |
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198 | (1) |
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Location and Orientation of Individuals |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (7) |
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200 | (4) |
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The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Formation |
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204 | (1) |
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Attitudes, Values, and Stereotypes |
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205 | (1) |
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Attitudes, Motivation, and Emotions |
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205 | (2) |
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207 | (7) |
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Perception of Risk Frequency and Probability |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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Using Risk Perception Studies |
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209 | (2) |
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211 | (1) |
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Heuristics for Evaluating Risk |
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211 | (1) |
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Errors in Risk Assessment |
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211 | (1) |
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Examples of the Use of Heuristic Rules in Risk Assessment |
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212 | (2) |
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Informing People about Risk |
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214 | (1) |
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Attitudes to Technologically Produced Hazardous Events |
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214 | (3) |
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214 | (1) |
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The Case of Yucca Mountain |
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215 | (2) |
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Natural Hazards and Perceived Risks |
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217 | (4) |
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Risk Perception in Natural Environments |
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217 | (1) |
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An Example: Reaction to Cyclones |
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217 | (2) |
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The Case of Bushfires in Australia |
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219 | (2) |
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Perception of the Built Environment |
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221 | (3) |
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Fear of Crime: A Case Study |
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221 | (1) |
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Visual Evaluation by Residents and Visitors |
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222 | (2) |
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Spatial Cognition, Cognitive Mapping, and Cognitive Maps |
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224 | (43) |
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224 | (3) |
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Characteristics of Spatial Cognition |
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227 | (2) |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (1) |
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The Conceptual Propositional Theory |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (1) |
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Cognitive Maps and Cognitive Mapping |
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229 | (5) |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (4) |
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234 | (1) |
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234 | (4) |
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234 | (2) |
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Cognitive Maps as Internal GIS |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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The Use of Cognitive Maps |
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238 | (2) |
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Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behavior |
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238 | (1) |
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Cognitive Maps as Planning Aids |
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239 | (1) |
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Cognitive Maps and Disability |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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Methods for Externally Representing Cognitive Maps |
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240 | (10) |
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Externalizing Information: Cognitive Configurations or Spatial Products |
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240 | (2) |
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242 | (3) |
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245 | (1) |
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Anchors and Errors in Cognitive Maps |
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246 | (4) |
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250 | (1) |
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251 | (2) |
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The City as a Hierarchical Structure |
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253 | (4) |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (1) |
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Cognition and Behavior in Classic Models of City Structure |
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257 | (4) |
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261 | (6) |
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Distinguishing between Subjective and Objective Distance |
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261 | (2) |
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Methods for Evaluating Cognitive Distance |
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263 | (4) |
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Activities in Time and Space |
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267 | (42) |
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The Nature of Human Activities in Time and Space |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (9) |
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Constraints, Paths, and Projects |
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268 | (2) |
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270 | (1) |
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270 | (1) |
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The Nature of Constraints: Projects and Paths |
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271 | (2) |
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273 | (2) |
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Applying the Space-Time Prism Concept within GIS |
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275 | (2) |
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Action Spaces and Activity Spaces |
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277 | (6) |
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278 | (1) |
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Components of Action Spaces |
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279 | (1) |
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Temporal and Spatial Aspects of Activity Space |
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280 | (3) |
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Activity Spaces, Trips, and Scale Differences |
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283 | (6) |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | (1) |
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Trips to Other Activity Locations |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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286 | (2) |
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Summary of Factors Influencing Daily Activity Patterns |
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288 | (1) |
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An Activity Approach to Behavior in Space and Time |
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289 | (2) |
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290 | (1) |
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290 | (1) |
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Obligatory and Discretionary Acts |
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290 | (1) |
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Early Approaches to Modeling Human Activities |
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291 | (13) |
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The Transductive Approach |
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292 | (3) |
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The Routine and Deliberated Choice Approach |
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295 | (5) |
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The Routine and Culturally Transmitted Behavior Approach |
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300 | (4) |
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Collecting Data on Activities in Time and Space |
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304 | (5) |
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304 | (1) |
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Methods of Collecting Time-Budget Data |
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305 | (3) |
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Duration, Frequency, and Sequence of Activities |
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308 | (1) |
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Activity Analysis in Travel and Transportation Modeling |
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309 | (39) |
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The Evolution of Transportation and Travel Models |
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309 | (4) |
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The Shortcomings of the Traditional Urban Transportation-Planning System |
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309 | (3) |
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312 | (1) |
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Early Behavioral Approaches |
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313 | (2) |
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313 | (1) |
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313 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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Early Time-Space Activity Models |
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314 | (1) |
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The Human Activity Approach |
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315 | (13) |
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316 | (3) |
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A Model of Individual Travel Behavior |
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319 | (3) |
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A Demand Model for Travel Using Queuing Theory |
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322 | (3) |
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The Household Activity-Travel Simulator Model |
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325 | (1) |
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A Situational Approach to Modeling Individual Travel Behavior |
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326 | (2) |
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A Cognitive Framework for Analyzing Activity Choice |
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328 | (4) |
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Destination Choice in Trip Behavior |
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329 | (1) |
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Problems in the Spatial Choice Paradigm |
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330 | (1) |
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The Cognitive Paradigm and Repetitive Travel |
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331 | (1) |
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Computational Process Modeling of Household Activity Scheduling |
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332 | (7) |
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Modeling Travel Route Choice |
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333 | (1) |
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Starchild; Identifying and Choosing Representative Daily Schedules |
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334 | (1) |
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Scheduler: Generating an Activity Schedule |
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335 | (2) |
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Data Requirements and Operational Complexity of the Models |
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337 | (2) |
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Planning Applications: A Simulation Model for Activities, Resources and Travel |
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339 | (9) |
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The Characteristics of the SMART Model |
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340 | (2) |
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The Household Activity Simulator |
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342 | (1) |
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343 | (1) |
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Operationalizing the SMART Model |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (3) |
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Consumer Behavior and Retail Center Location |
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348 | (39) |
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The Evolution of Consumer Behavior Models |
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348 | (1) |
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Gravity Model Approaches: From Deterministic to Probabilistic Analysis |
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349 | (5) |
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Classical Retail Gravity Models |
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349 | (2) |
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Probabilistic Retail Gravity Models |
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351 | (2) |
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Refinements of the Huff Model |
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353 | (1) |
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Disaggregate Discrete Choice Models |
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354 | (4) |
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Types of Discrete Choice Models |
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354 | (3) |
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Discrete Choice Models: An Example |
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357 | (1) |
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Information-Processing Models |
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358 | (2) |
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From Rationality to Satisficing and Information Processing |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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Imagery and Consumer Behavior |
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360 | (5) |
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360 | (1) |
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361 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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Retailer's Cognitions of Store and Shopping Center Environments |
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363 | (2) |
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The Development of Planned Shopping Centers in the United States |
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365 | (14) |
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The Evolution and Proliferation of Shopping Centers |
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365 | (2) |
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Tenant Mixes and Functional Make-up |
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367 | (4) |
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Retail Center Policy Trends in the United States |
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371 | (5) |
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Environmental and Other Public Policies |
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376 | (1) |
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Locations and Characteristics of Shopping Centers |
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376 | (3) |
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The Role of Government in Shopping Center Locations |
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379 | (6) |
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382 | (1) |
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383 | (1) |
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Social Justice and Equity |
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384 | (1) |
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385 | (2) |
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387 | (37) |
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387 | (1) |
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388 | (4) |
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Difficulties of Definition |
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388 | (1) |
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Critical Components of Emotions |
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389 | (1) |
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Hierarchical Levels of Affective Response |
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390 | (1) |
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An Interactional Constructivist Model |
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390 | (1) |
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The Individual's Assessment of Setting |
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391 | (1) |
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392 | (4) |
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Landscapes and Cultural Values |
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392 | (1) |
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393 | (3) |
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396 | (4) |
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Evaluating Places and Assessing Landscapes |
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400 | (5) |
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400 | (2) |
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Specification of Attributes |
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402 | (1) |
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403 | (2) |
|
Another View of Space and Spaces |
|
|
405 | (1) |
|
|
|
406 | (8) |
|
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
Defining Where Things Are |
|
|
410 | (4) |
|
|
|
414 | (3) |
|
Environments for Recreation and Leisure |
|
|
417 | (7) |
|
Product Cycle and Typology of Tourists |
|
|
418 | (3) |
|
Some Public Policy Implications |
|
|
421 | (3) |
|
The Causes and Nature of Migration |
|
|
424 | (35) |
|
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
The Nature of Migration and Migration Studies |
|
|
425 | (3) |
|
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
Approaches to the Study of Migration |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
Types of Migration and Mobility |
|
|
428 | (4) |
|
Long-Distance Migration and Residential Mobility |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
Partial Displacement Migration or Mobility |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Total Displacement Migration |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Relating Geographic, Social, and Occupational Mobility |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
Necessary or Obligatory Moves versus Moves Caused by Needs |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
Migration and Assimilation |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
Modeling Aggregate Migration Flows |
|
|
432 | (12) |
|
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
The Empirical Approach: Migration Fields |
|
|
433 | (2) |
|
The Gravity Model and the Intervening Opportunities Model |
|
|
435 | (3) |
|
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
An Optimizing Gravity Model |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Attractors and the Attracted: An Alternative Approach |
|
|
441 | (3) |
|
Limitations of the Gravity Model Approaches |
|
|
444 | (4) |
|
Return and Onward-Moving Migrants |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
Predictive Capacity versus Understanding of Process |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
The Mobility Transition Hypothesis: Problems with the Assumptions of Models |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
Selectivity Differentials and Motivation in Migration: Toward Micro Models of Migration |
|
|
448 | (8) |
|
Mobility and Stage in the Family Life Cycle |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Motivation Underlying Migration |
|
|
449 | (2) |
|
Migration as a Decision Process |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
A Value Expectancy Model of Migration |
|
|
452 | (4) |
|
Habitas as a Cultural Process in Migration |
|
|
456 | (3) |
|
Residential Mobility and Location Decisions |
|
|
459 | (30) |
|
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
|
|
461 | (3) |
|
Patterns of Intraurban Population Change and Mobility |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
From Aggregate to Individual Choice Models |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Residential Aspirations, Preferences, and Achievement |
|
|
465 | (11) |
|
Why Families Move: Rossi's Classical Study |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Preference and Desirability Studies |
|
|
467 | (6) |
|
Stressors and the Level of Residential Satisfaction |
|
|
473 | (3) |
|
A Residential Location Decision Process Model |
|
|
476 | (3) |
|
The Nature of Residential Search and Choice |
|
|
479 | (7) |
|
|
|
480 | (3) |
|
|
|
483 | (2) |
|
Information in Search and Choice |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Relating Residential Relocation Behavior to the Urban Structure |
|
|
486 | (3) |
|
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
Geography and Special Populations |
|
|
489 | (47) |
|
Geography and ``The Other'' |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
|
|
490 | (2) |
|
Definitions of the Disabled |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Distribution of Discriminatory Practices |
|
|
490 | (2) |
|
|
|
492 | (7) |
|
Environmental Design for Wheelchair Users |
|
|
492 | (3) |
|
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
Barrier-Free Environments |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Cross-Disability Problems |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Blindness and Vision Impairment |
|
|
499 | (5) |
|
Spatial Abilities With and Without Vision |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
The Spatial Distribution of Blindness |
|
|
500 | (4) |
|
Design of Environments for Those Without Vision: A Case Study |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Spatial Abilities of Vision-Impaired People |
|
|
505 | (8) |
|
Wayfinding by Those Without Vision |
|
|
506 | (3) |
|
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
Cognitive Maps of the Blind: A Case Study |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
|
|
511 | (2) |
|
|
|
513 | (9) |
|
|
|
513 | (2) |
|
|
|
515 | (2) |
|
Wayfinding via the Process of Path Integration |
|
|
517 | (4) |
|
Wayfinding Using Assistive Devices |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
The Use of Bus Transit by the Blind |
|
|
522 | (3) |
|
|
|
525 | (11) |
|
Attitudes Toward Retardation |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
Environmental Characteristics Known to Retarded People: Frames of Reference |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Spatial Concepts: A Case Study of Retarded Groups |
|
|
528 | (8) |
|
Gendering and the Elderly |
|
|
536 | (28) |
|
The Functional Significance of Two Major Divisions of Society |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
An Epistemological Basis for the Lack of Attention to Gender Issues |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
Gender Bias in Geographic Research |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Rethinking Urban Residential Structure from a Feminist Perspective |
|
|
538 | (3) |
|
A Critique of Social Area and Factorial Ecology Analysis |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
The Interaction between Gender and Class in Residential Segregation |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Home-Work and Work-Home Relationships |
|
|
541 | (5) |
|
Effects of Home Location on Workplace Selection |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Effects of Workplace on Locational Choice of Home |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Social Relations and Status |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
Commuting and Work: Gender, Occupation, and Race Differences |
|
|
544 | (2) |
|
Do Spatial Abilities Vary between the Sexes? |
|
|
546 | (3) |
|
Sex Differences in Spatial Aptitudes |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Sex Differences in Spatial Behavior |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
Discrimination and Equal Opportunity Issues |
|
|
547 | (2) |
|
|
|
549 | (3) |
|
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Mobility Patterns of the Elderly |
|
|
550 | (2) |
|
Retirement and Residential Relocation |
|
|
552 | (5) |
|
Push-Pull Factors and Segmentation |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
Environment and Well-Being |
|
|
554 | (3) |
|
|
|
557 | (7) |
|
A Typology of Retirement Housing |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Attributes Sought by the Elderly in Retirement Housing |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Policy and Planning Issues |
|
|
559 | (2) |
|
Financing and Sponsorship of Retirement Communities |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
|
562 | (2) |
| References |
|
564 | (35) |
| Index |
|
599 | |
