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El. knyga: Trust Theory: A Socio-Cognitive and Computational Model

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(Italian National Research Council), (Italian National Research Council)
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Cristiano Castelfranchi, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC) of the Itatian National Research Council (CNR), ItalyRino Falcone, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC) of the Itatian National Research Council (CNR), ItalyThis book explains the importance of trust in human interaction, including cognitive agents. The authors address the concepts of trust, describing the theory based on cognitive, cultural, institutional, technical, and normative solutions. This provides a strong base for the authors discussion of the role of trust in agent-based systems in supporting human-computer interaction, distributed and virtual organisations, and markets (multi-agent systems).This book will be a valuable reference for researchers and advanced students focused on information and communication technologies (computer science, artifical intelligence, organizational sciences, and knowledge management etc.), as well as website and robotics designers, and for scholars working on human, social, and cultural aspects of technology. Professionals of ecommerce systems and peer-to-peer systems will also find this text of interest. This book provides an introduction, discussion, and formal-based modelling of trust theory and its applications in agent-based systems This book gives an accessible explanation of the importance of trust in human interaction and, in general, in autonomous cognitive agents including autonomous technologies. The authors explain the concepts of trust, and describe a principled, general theory of trust grounded on cognitive, cultural, institutional, technical, and normative solutions. This provides a strong base for the author’s discussion of role of trust in agent-based systems supporting human-computer interaction and distributed and virtual organizations or markets (multi-agent systems). Key Features: Provides an accessible introduction to trust, and its importance and applications in agent-based systems Proposes a principled, general theory of trust grounding on cognitive, cultural, institutional, technical, and normative solutions. Offers a clear, intuitive approach, and systematic integration of relevant issues Explains the dynamics of trust, and the relationship between trust and security Offers operational definitions and models directly applicable both in technical and experimental domains Includes a critical examination of trust models in economics, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and AI   This book will be a valuable reference for researchers and advanced students focused on information and communication technologies (computer science, artificial intelligence, organizational sciences, and knowledge management etc.), as well as Web-site and robotics designers, and for scholars working on human, social, and cultural aspects of technology. Professionals of ecommerce systems and peer-to-peer systems will also find this text of interest.

Recenzijos

"I highly recommend this book to anyone who wants to delve deep into the concept of trust, in particular for use in computational applications and social simulations to strengthen awareness of complexity, complications and conundrums of trust." (JASSS, 2011)

"Castelfranchi and Falcone's (both Italian National Research Council) is the first book providing an overview of the field of modeling trust and computational models of trust." (Book News, September 2010)

Foreword xv
Introduction 1(6)
1 Definitions of Trust: From Conceptual Components to the General Core
7(28)
1.1 A Content Analysis
8(4)
1.2 Missed Components and Obscure Links
12(3)
1.3 Intentional Action and Lack of Controllability: Relying on What is Beyond Our Power
15(2)
1.4 Two Intertwined Notions of Trust: Trust as Attitude vs. Trust as Act
17(2)
1.5 A Critique of Some Significant Definitions of Trust
19(16)
1.5.1 Gambetta: Is Trust Only About Predictability?
19(1)
1.5.2 Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman: Is Trust Only Willingness, for Any Kind of Vulnerability?
19(2)
1.5.3 McKnight: The Black Boxes of Trust
21(1)
1.5.4 Marsh: Is a Mere Expectation Enough for Modeling Trust?
21(1)
1.5.5 Yamagishi: Mixing up the Act of Trusting and the Act of Cooperating
22(4)
1.5.6 Trust as Based on Reciprocity
26(1)
1.5.7 Hardin: Trust as Encapsulated Interest
26(4)
1.5.8 Rousseau: What Kind of Intention is `Trust'?
30(1)
References
31(4)
2 Socio-Cognitive Model of Trust: Basic Ingredients
35(60)
2.1 A Five-Part Relation and a Layered Model
36(2)
2.1.1 A Layered Notion
36(2)
2.1.2 Goal State and Side Effects
38(1)
2.2 Trust as Mental Attitude: a Belief-Based and Goal-Based Model
38(16)
2.2.1 Trust as Positive Evaluation
39(5)
2.2.2 The `Motivational' Side of Trust
44(1)
2.2.3 The Crucial Notion of `Goal'
45(2)
2.2.4 Trust Versus Trustworthiness
47(1)
2.2.5 Two Main Components: Competence Versus Predictability
47(2)
2.2.6 Trustworthiness (and trust) as Multidimensional Evaluative Profiles
49(1)
2.2.7 The Inherently Attributional Nature of Trust
50(2)
2.2.8 Trust, Positive Evaluation and Positive Expectation
52(2)
2.3 Expectations: Their Nature and Cognitive Anatomy
54(6)
2.3.1 Epistemic Goals and Activity
54(1)
2.3.2 Content Goals
55(1)
2.3.3 The Quantitative Aspects of Mental Attitudes
56(2)
2.3.4 The Implicit Counterpart of Expectations
58(1)
2.3.5 Emotional Response to Expectation is Specific: the Strength of Disappointment
58(2)
2.3.6 Trust is not Reducible to a Positive Expectation
60(1)
2.4 `No Danger': Negative or Passive or Defensive Trust
60(2)
2.5 Weakening the Belief-Base: Implicit Beliefs, Acceptances, and Trust by-Default
62(2)
2.6 From Disposition to Action
64(8)
2.6.1 Trust That and Trust in
66(1)
2.6.2 Trust Pre-disposition and Disposition: From Potential to Actual Trust
67(2)
2.6.3 The Decision and Act of Trust Implies the Decision to Rely on
69(3)
2.7 Can we Decide to Trust?
72(1)
2.8 Risk, Investment and Bet
73(4)
2.8.1 `Risk' Definition and Ontology
74(2)
2.8.2 What Kinds of Taken Risks Characterize Trust Decisions?
76(1)
2.9 Trust and Delegation
77(5)
2.9.1 Trust in Different Forms of Delegation
79(1)
2.9.2 Trust in Open Delegation Versus Trust in Closed Delegation
80(2)
2.10 The Other Parts of the Relation: the Delegated Task and the Context
82(2)
2.10.1 Why Does X Trust Y?
82(1)
2.10.2 The Role of the Context/Environment in Trust
83(1)
2.11 Genuine Social Trust: Trust and Adoption
84(7)
2.11.1 Concern
88(1)
2.11.2 How Expectations Generate (Entitled) Prescriptions: Towards `Betrayal'
88(1)
2.11.3 Super-Trust or Tutorial Trust
89(2)
2.12 Resuming the Model
91(4)
References
92(3)
3 Socio-Cognitive Model of Trust: Quantitative Aspects
95(22)
3.1 Degrees of Trust: a Principled Quantification of Trust
95(2)
3.2 Relationships between Trust in Beliefs and Trust in Action and Delegation
97(1)
3.3 A Belief-Based Degree of Trust
98(3)
3.4 To Trust or Not to Trust: Degrees of Trust and Decision to Trust
101(6)
3.5 Positive Trust is not Enough: a Variable Threshold for Risk Acceptance/Avoidance
107(4)
3.6 Generalizing the Trust Decision to a Set of Agents
111(1)
3.7 When Trust is Too Few or Too Much
112(2)
3.7.1 Rational Trust
112(1)
3.7.2 Over-Confidence and Over-Diffidence
112(2)
3.8 Conclusions
114(3)
References
115(2)
4 The Negative Side: Lack of Trust, Implicit Trust, Mistrust, Doubts and Diffidence
117(16)
4.1 From Lack of Trust to Diffidence: Not Simply a Matter of Degree
117(2)
4.1.1 Mistrust as a Negative Evaluation
118(1)
4.2 Lack of Trust
119(1)
4.3 The Complete Picture
120(1)
4.4 In Sum
121(1)
4.5 Trust and Fear
122(1)
4.6 Implicit and by Default Forms of Trust
122(3)
4.6.1 Social by-Default Trust
124(1)
4.7 Insufficient Trust
125(1)
4.8 Trust on Credit: The Game of Ignorance
126(7)
4.8.1 Control and Uncertainty
126(1)
4.8.2 Conditional Trust
127(1)
4.8.3 To Give or Not to Give Credit
127(2)
4.8.4 Distrust as Not Giving Credit
129(2)
References
131(2)
5 The Affective and Intuitive Forms of Trust: The Confidence We Inspire
133(14)
5.1 Two Forms of `Evaluation'
134(1)
5.2 The Dual Nature of Valence: Cognitive Evaluations Versus Intuitive Appraisal
134(1)
5.3 Evaluations
135(2)
5.3.1 Evaluations and Emotions
136(1)
5.4 Appraisal
137(1)
5.5 Relationships Between Appraisal and Evaluation
138(2)
5.6 Trust as Feeling
140(1)
5.7 Trust Disposition as an Emotion and Trust Action as an Impulse
141(1)
5.8 Basing Trust on the Emotions of the Other
142(1)
5.9 The Possible Affective Base of `Generalized Trust' and `Trust Atmosphere'
143(1)
5.10 Layers and Paths
143(1)
5.11 Conclusions About Trust and Emotions
144(1)
References
145(2)
6 Dynamics of Trust
147(44)
6.1 Mental Ingredients in Trust Dynamics
148(2)
6.2 Experience as an Interpretation Process: Causal Attribution for Trust
150(4)
6.3 Changing the Trustee's Trustworthiness
154(10)
6.3.1 The Case of Weak Delegation
154(4)
6.3.2 The Case of Strong Delegation
158(3)
6.3.3 Anticipated Effects: A Planned Dynamics
161(3)
6.4 The Dynamics of Reciprocal Trust and Distrust
164(4)
6.5 The Diffusion of Trust: Authority, Example, Contagion, Web of Trust
168(6)
6.5.1 Since Z Trusts Y, Also X Trusts Y
168(5)
6.5.2 Since X Trusts Y, (by Analogy) Z Trusts W
173(1)
6.5.3 Calculated Influence
173(1)
6.6 Trust Through Transfer and Generalization
174(10)
6.6.1 Classes of Tasks and Classes of Agents
175(1)
6.6.2 Matching Agents' Features and Tasks' Properties
175(2)
6.6.3 Formal Analysis
177(1)
6.6.4 Generalizing to Different Tasks and Agents
178(4)
6.6.5 Classes of Agents and Tasks
182(2)
6.7 The Relativity of Trust: Reasons for Trust Crisis
184(4)
6.8 Concluding Remarks
188(3)
References
189(2)
7 Trust, Control and Autonomy: A Dialectic Relationship
191(44)
7.1 Trust and Control: A Complex Relationship
191(15)
7.1.1 To Trust or to Control? Two Opposite Notions
192(1)
7.1.2 What Control is
192(3)
7.1.3 Control Replaces Trust and Trust Makes Control Superflous?
195(1)
7.1.4 Trust Notions: Strict (Antagonist of Control) and Broad (Including Control)
196(2)
7.1.5 Relying on Control and Bonds Requires Additional Trust: Three Party Trust
198(2)
7.1.6 How Control Increases and Complements Trust
200(1)
7.1.7 Two Kinds of Control
201(2)
7.1.8 Filling the Gap between Doing/Action and Achieving/Results
203(1)
7.1.9 The Dynamics
204(1)
7.1.10 Control Kills Trust
205(1)
7.1.11 Resuming the Relationships between Trust and Control
206(1)
7.2 Adjusting Autonomy and Delegation on the Basis of Trust in Y
206(24)
7.2.1 The Notion of Autonomy in Collaboration
209(1)
7.2.2 Delegation/Adoption Theory
209(4)
7.2.3 The Adjustment of Delegation/Adoption
213(9)
7.2.4 Channels for the Bilateral Adjustments
222(1)
7.2.5 Protocols for Control Adjustments
223(2)
7.2.6 From Delegation Adjustment to Autonomy Adjustment
225(1)
7.2.7 Adjusting Meta-Autonomy and Realization-Autonomy of the Trustee
225(1)
7.2.8 Adjusting Autonomy by Modyfing Control
226(1)
7.2.9 When to Adjust the Autonomy of the Agents
227(3)
7.3 Conclusions
230(5)
References
232(3)
8 The Economic Reductionism and Trust (Ir)rationality
235(30)
8.1 Irrational Basis for Trust?
236(3)
8.1.1 Is Trust a Belief in the Other's Irrationality?
236(3)
8.2 Is Trust an `Optimistic' and Irrational Attitude and Decision?
239(8)
8.2.1 The Rose-Tinted Glasses of Trust
239(7)
8.2.2 Risk Perception
246(1)
8.3 Is Trust Just the Subjective Probability of the Favorable Event?
247(7)
8.3.1 Is Trust Only about Predictability? A Very Bad Service but a Sure One
247(1)
8.3.2 Probability Collapses Trust `that' and `in'
248(1)
8.3.3 Probability Collapses Internal and External (Attributions of) Trust
248(2)
8.3.4 Probability Misses the Active View of Trust
250(1)
8.3.5 Probability or Plausibility?
250(1)
8.3.6 Probability Reduction Exposes to Eliminative Behavior: Against Williamson
250(2)
8.3.7 Probability Mixes up Various Kinds of Beliefs, Evaluations, Expectations about the Trustee and Their Mind
252(2)
8.4 Trust in Game Theory: from Opportunism to Reciprocity
254(2)
8.4.1 Limiting Trust to the Danger of Opportunistic Behavior
255(1)
8.4.2 `To Trust' is not `to Cooperate'
255(1)
8.5 Trust Game: A Procuste's Bed for Trust Theory
256(2)
8.6 Does Trust Presuppose Reciprocity?
258(2)
8.7 The Varieties of Trust Responsiveness
260(1)
8.8 Trusting as Signaling
260(1)
8.9 Concluding Remarks
261(4)
References
261(4)
9 The Glue of Society
265(16)
9.1 Why Trust is the `Glue of Society'
265(1)
9.2 Trust and Social Order
266(2)
9.2.1 Trust Routinization
268(1)
9.3 How the Action of Trust Acquires the Social Function of Creating Trust
268(2)
9.4 From Micro to Macro: a Web of Trust
270(2)
9.4.1 Local Repercussions
270(1)
9.4.2 Trans-Local Repercussions
271(1)
9.5 Trust and Contracts
272(3)
9.5.1 Do Contracts Replace Trust?
272(1)
9.5.2 Increasing Trust: from Intentions to Contracts
272(3)
9.5.3 Negotiation and Pacts: Trust as Premise and Consequence
275(1)
9.6 Is Trust Based on Norms?
275(3)
9.6.1 Does Trust Create Trust and does There Exist a Norm of Reciprocating Trust?
277(1)
9.7 Trust: The Catalyst of Institutions
278(3)
9.7.1 The Radical Trust Crisis: Institutional Deconstruction
279(1)
References
279(2)
10 On the Trustee's Side: Trust As Relational Capital
281(24)
10.1 Trust and Relational Capital
282(2)
10.2 Cognitive Model of Being Trusted
284(13)
10.2.1 Objective and Subjective Dependence
285(4)
10.2.2 Dependence and Negotiation Power
289(3)
10.2.3 Trust Role in Dependence Networks
292(5)
10.3 Dynamics of Relational Capital
297(4)
10.3.1 Increasing, Decreasing and Transferring
297(3)
10.3.2 Strategic Behavior of the Trustee
300(1)
10.4 From Trust Relational Capital to Reputational Capital
301(1)
10.5 Conclusions
302(3)
References
302(3)
11 A Fuzzy Implementation for the Socio-Cognitive Approach to Trust
305(38)
11.1 Using a Fuzzy Approach
306(1)
11.2 Scenarios
306(1)
11.3 Belief Sources
307(1)
11.4 Building Belief Sources
307(3)
11.4.1 A Note on Self-Trust
309(1)
11.5 Implementation with Nested FCMs
310(1)
11.6 Converging and Diverging Belief Sources
311(1)
11.7 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Sources
312(1)
11.8 Modeling Beliefs and Sources
312(1)
11.9 Overview of the Implementation
313(3)
11.9.1 A Note on Fuzzy Values
315(1)
11.10 Description of the Model
316(1)
11.11 Running the Model
316(1)
11.12 Experimental Setting
317(6)
11.12.1 Routine Visit Scenario
317(2)
11.12.2 Emergency Visit Scenario
319(1)
11.12.3 Trustfulness and Decision
320(1)
11.12.4 Experimental Discussion
321(1)
11.12.5 Evaluating the Behavior of the FCMs
322(1)
11.12.6 Personality Factors
322(1)
11.13 Learning Mechanisms
323(3)
11.13.1 Implicit Revision
324(1)
11.13.2 Explicit Revision
324(1)
11.13.3 A Taxonomy of Possible Revisions
325(1)
11.14 Contract Nets for Evaluating Agent Trustworthiness
326(17)
11.14.1 Experimental Setting
326(1)
11.14.2 Delegation Strategies
327(1)
11.14.3 The Contract Net Structure
328(1)
11.14.4 Performing a Task
329(1)
11.14.5 FCMs for Trust
329(1)
11.14.6 Experiments Description
330(3)
11.14.7 Using Partial Knowledge: the Strength of a Cognitive Analysis
333(6)
11.14.8 Results Discussion
339(2)
11.14.9 Comparison with Other Existing Models and Conclusions
341(1)
References
342(1)
12 Trust and Technology
343(16)
12.1 Main Difference Between Security and Trust
344(1)
12.2 Trust Models and Technology
345(9)
12.2.1 Logical Approaches
346(1)
12.2.2 Computational Approach
347(1)
12.2.3 Different Kinds of Sources
347(1)
12.2.4 Centralized Reputation Mechanisms
348(1)
12.2.5 Decentralized Reputation Mechanisms
349(1)
12.2.6 Different Kinds of Metrics
350(1)
12.2.7 Other Models and Approaches to Trust in the Computational Framework
351(3)
12.3 Concluding Remarks
354(5)
References
354(5)
13 Concluding Remarks and Pointers
359(6)
13.1 Against Reductionism
359(1)
13.2 Neuro-Trust and the Need for a Theoretical Model
360(1)
13.3 Trust, Institutions, Politics (Some Pills of Reflection)
361(4)
13.3.1 For Italy (All'Italia)
362(1)
References
363(2)
Index 365
Cristiano Castelfranchi is full professor of Cognitive Sciences at the University of Siena, Italy, and Director of the Institute of the Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC) of the Italian National Research Council (CNR). Cristiano has a background in linguistics and psychology, and is active in the Multi-Agent Systems, Social Simulation, and Cognitive Science communities. He was program chair of AAMAS 2002, and is chair of several international workshops. He has published 11 books (3 in English), and more than 150 conference and journal articles.

Rino Falcone is Leader Researcher for the T3 (Trust Theory and Technology) group at the Institute of the Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC) of the Italian National Research Council (CNR). His scientific interests include Natural Language Processing, Plan Recognition, Multi-agent Systems and Agent Theory.  Rino has published more than 100 conference and journal articles, organized several international conferences, and edited several special issues of international journal on these topics.
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