This is the first book to describe an emerging but already growing technology of thermal imaging based on uncooled infrared imaging arrays and systems, which are the most exciting new developments in infrared technology today. This technology is of great importance to developers and users of thermal images for military and commercial applications. The chapters, prepared by world leaders in the technology, describe not only the mainstream efforts, but also exciting new approaches and fundamental limits applicable to all.
Key Features
* Unified approach to technology development based on fundamental limits
* Individual chapters written by world leaders in each technology
* Novel potential approaches, allowing for the reduction of costs, described in detail
* Descriptive and analytical
* Provides details of the mainstream approaches--resistive bolometric, pyroelectric/field enhanced pyroelectric, thermoelectric
* Provides insight into a unified approach to development of all types of thermal imaging arrays
Features state-of-the-art and selected new developments
Daugiau informacijos
Key Features * Unified approach to technology development based on fundamental limits * Individual chapters written by world leaders in each technology * Novel potential approaches, allowing for the reduction of costs, described in detail * Descriptive and analytical * Provides details of the mainstream approaches--resistive bolometric, pyroelectric/field enhanced pyroelectric, thermoelectric * Provides insight into a unified approach to development of all types of thermal imaging arrays Features state-of-the-art and selected new developments
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi(2) PREFACE xiii
Chapter 1 Historical Overview 1(16) Rudolph G. Buser Michael F. Tompsett I. Introduction 1(5) II. History of Electronic Materials Research for Uncooled Imagers 6(3)
1. Ferroelectric-Pyroelectric Materials 6(2)
2. Resistive Materials 8(1) III. Uncooled Imaging Arrays Using Silicon Read-Out 9(3)
1. Ferroelectric-Pyroelectric Arrays 9(2)
2. Resistive Bolometric Arrays 11(1) IV. Future 12(2) References 14(3)
Chapter 2 Principles of Uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays 17(28) Paul W. Kruse I. Importance of the Thermal Isolation Structure 17(6) II. Principal Thermal Detection Mechanisms 23(8)
1. Resistive Bolometers 23(2)
2. Pyroelectric Detectors and Ferroelectric Bolometers 25(4)
3. Thermoelectric Detectors 29(2) III. Fundamental Limits 31(6)
1. Temperature Fluctuation Noise Limit 31(2)
2. Background Fluctuation Noise Limit 33(4) IV. Discussion 37(3) References and Bibliography 40(5)
Chapter 3 Monolithic Silicon Microbolometer Arrays 45(78) R. A. Wood I. Background 45(2) II. Responsivity of Microbolometers 47(28)
1. Microbolometer Model 47(4)
2. Resistance Changes in Microbolometer Materials 51(5)
3. Microbolometer Heat Balance Equation 56(1)
4. Solutions of the Heat Balance Equation 57(1)
5. Heat Balance with No Applied Bias 57(2)
6. Heat Balance with Applied Bias 59(2)
7. Calculations of V - I Curves 61(3)
8. Load Line 64(4)
9. Low-Frequency Noise in Microbolometer with Applied Bias 68(2)
10. Microbolometer Responsivity with Pulsed Bias or Large Radiation Signals 70(1)
11. Numerical Calculation of Microbolometer Performance 71(4) III. Noise in Bolometers 75(11)
1. Bolometer Resistance Noise 75(4)
2. Noise from Bias Resistors 79(1)
3. Thermal Conductance Noise 80(1)
4. Radiation Noise 81(2)
5. Total Electrical Noise 83(2)
6. Preamplifier Noise 85(1) IV. Microbolometer Signal-to-Noise 86(5)
1. Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) 86(1)
2. Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) 86(1)
3. Detectivity 87(2)
4. Comparison with the Ideal Bolometer 89(2)
5. Johnson Noise Approximation 91(1) V. Electric Read-Out Circuits for Two-Dimensional Microbolometer Arrays 91(4) VI. Offset Compensation Schemes 95(2) VII. Gain Correction 97(1) VIII. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) 98(1) IX. Microbolometer Physical Design, Fabrication, and Packaging 98(18)
1. One-Level Microbolometers 100(2)
2. Two-Level Microbolometers 102(7)
3. Packaging 109(7) X. Practical Camera Development 116(3) References 119(4)
Chapter 4 Hybrid Pyroelectric-Ferroelectric Bolometer Arrays 123(52) Charles M. Hanson I. Introduction 123(1) II. Principles of Pyroelectric Detectors 124(30)
1. Pyroelectricity and Ferroelectric Materials 124(15)
2. Modes of Operation 139(5)
3. Signal and Noise 144(10) III. Practical Considerations and Designs 154(15)
1. Ferroelectric Material Selection 154(2)
2. Thermal Isolation 156(2)
3. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) 158(1)
4. Read-out Electronics 159(2)
5. System Electronics 161(1)
6. Choppers 162(7) IV. Systems Implementations 169(4) References 173(2)
Chapter 5 Monolithic Pyroelectric Bolometer Arrays 175(28) Dennis L. Polla Jun R. Choi I. Introduction 175(1) II. Detector Design Methodology 176(11)
1. Materials Processing 178(3)
2. Materials Characterization 181(2)
3. Thermal Isolation Structures 183(1)
4. Micromachined Sensor Process Design 184(2)
5. Integrated Circuits 186(1) III. Process Design 187(2) IV. Silicon-Based Integrated Pyroelectric Detector Arrays 189(8)
1. Cell Structure 190(1)
2. Circuit Operation 191(4)
3. Silicon-Based PbTiO(3) Array Performance 195(2) V. Gallium Arsenide-Based Integrated Pyroelectric Detectors 197(2) VI. Summary 199(1) References 200(3)
Chapter 6 Thermoelectric Uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays 203(16) Nobukazu Teranishi I. Introduction 203(1) II. Thermopile Infrared Detector 204(6)
1. Mechanism for Uncooled Infrared Detector 204(1)
2. Comparison Among Uncooled Infrared Detector Schemes 205(1)
3. The Seebeck Effect 206(3)
4. Various Thermopile Infrared Detectors 209(1) III. A 128 x 128 Pixel Thermopile Infrared Focal Plane Array 210(7)
1. Polysilicon Thermopile Infrared Detector 210(1)
2. Characteristics of a Thermopile Infrared Detector 211(1)
3. Signal Read-Out Circuit 211(2)
4. Charge-Coupled Device Scanner 213(1)
5. Package 214(1)
6. Performance 215(2)
7. Future Improvements 217(1) IV. Summary 217(1) References 218(1)
Chapter 7 Pyroelectric Vidicon 219(8) Michael F. Tompsett I. History 219(4) II. Performance Analysis 223(2) References 225(2)
Chapter 8 Tunneling Infrared Sensors 227(42) T. W. Kenny I. Introduction 227(2) II. Sensor Modeling 229(10)
1. Sensor Thermal Model 229(3)
2. Sensor Mechanical and Electrical Model 232(4)
3. Noise Model and Considerations 236(3) III. Tunneling Transducer Background 239(6)
1. Comparison of Tunneling and Capacitive Transducers 241(2)
2. Tunneling Transducer Design Considerations 243(2) IV. Tunneling Infrared Sensor Design and Fabrication 245(8) V. Tunneling Transducer Operation 253(6) VI. Infrared Sensor Operation and Testing 259(5) VII. Future Prospects for the Tunneling Infrared Sensor 264(2) VIII. Conclusion 266(1) References 266(3)
Chapter 9 Application of Quartz Microresonators to Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays 269(28) John R. Vig Raymond L. Filler Yoonkee Kim I. Introduction 269(2) II. Quartz Microresonators as Infrared Sensors 271(1) III. Quartz Thermometers and Their Temperature Coefficients 272(1) IV. Oscillator Noise 273(1) V. Frequency Measurement 274(1) VI. Thermal Isolation 275(2) VII. Infrared Absorption of Microresonators 277(2) VIII. Predicted Performance of Microresonator Arrays 279(2) IX. Producibility and Other Challenges 281(2) X. Summary and Conclusions 283(1) Appendix. Performance Calculations 284(10) References 294(3)
Chapter 10 Application of Uncooled Monolithic Thermoelectric Linear Arrays to Imaging Radiometers 297(22) Paul W. Kruse I. Introduction 297(1) II. Identification of Incipient Failure of Railcar Wheels 298(11)
1. Technical Description of the Model IR 1000 Imaging Radiometer 298(2)
2. Performance of the Model IR 1000 Imaging Radiometer 300(4)
3. Initial Application 304(5)
4. Summary 309(1) III. Imaging Radiometer for Predictive and Preventive Maintenance 309(9)
1. Description 310(2)
2. Operation 312(5)
3. Specifications 317(1)
4. Summary 317(1) References 318(1) INDEX 319(8) CONTENTS OF VOLUMES IN THIS SERIES 327
Dr. David Skatrud is the Associate Director of the Physics Division of the U.S. Army Research Office. He also serves as the program manager for the Army's extramural research programs in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics; Obscured Visibility, and Image Analysis. In addition, he is an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Duke University Department of Physics. A native of Conrad, Montana, Dr. Skatrud received a Bachelor of Arts degree from St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota, in 1979 with major in mathematics and physics, and a Ph.D. in Physics from Duke University in 1984. Dr. Skatrud held a Post Doctoral appointment as a research associate and instructor with the Physics Department at Duke University from 1984 1985. Following that he joined the Physics Division of the U.S. Army Research Offices program manager for the Army's extramural research program in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics. Since 1991, he has also served as the Physics Division's Associate Director. He has been on the adjunct faculty of Duke University since 1986, with the rank of Associate Professor since 1990. Areas of interest in his research program at Duke include novel far-infrared molecular lasers, submillimeter-wave spectroscopy, rotational/vibrational collisional kinetics, and neat millimeter-wave sources and detectors. Dr. Paul W. Kruse, who received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Notre Dame in 1954, is widely recognized in the IR community. His work under Air Force contract, being in 1961, resulted in the initial U.S. development of mercury cadmium telluride as an IR detector, for which he received the H.S. Sweatt Award from Honeywell in 1966 and the Alan Gordon Memorial Award from SPIE in 1981. He is the co-author of Elements of Infrared Technology (Wiley, 1992), the author of more than 125 other scientific publications, and the holder of ten patents. He has served on 23 scientific advisory boards. He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society, a Fellow of the Optical Society of America, an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. After two years at Farnsworth Electronics Company beginning in 1954, he joined Honeywell in 1956, from which he retired in August 1993 as Chief Research Fellow of the Honeywell Technology Center. He is presently Vice President and Chief Scientist of Infrared Solutions, Inc., a developer and manufacturer of uncooled infrared thermal imaging systems and imaging radiometers.
