| Preface |
|
xxvii | |
| Acknowledgments |
|
xxxiii | |
| Foreword |
|
xxxvii | |
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Part 1 Water Reuse: An Introduction |
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1 | (70) |
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Water Issues: Current Status and the Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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3 | (34) |
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4 | (2) |
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6 | (1) |
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Principles of Sustainable Water Resources Management |
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6 | (9) |
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The principle of sustainability |
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7 | (1) |
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Working definitions of sustainability |
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7 | (1) |
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Challenges for sustainability |
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7 | (1) |
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Criteria for sustainable water resources management |
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7 | (6) |
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13 | (2) |
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Current and Potential Future Global Water Shortages |
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15 | (8) |
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Impact of current and projected world population |
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15 | (4) |
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Potential global water shortages |
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19 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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Potential regional water shortages in the continental United States |
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20 | (3) |
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The Important Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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23 | (7) |
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24 | (1) |
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Integrated water resources planning |
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24 | (3) |
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Personnel needs/sustainable engineering |
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27 | (1) |
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Treatment and technology needs |
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27 | (1) |
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Infrastructure and planning issues |
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28 | (2) |
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Water Reclamation and Reuse and Its Future |
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30 | (7) |
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31 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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Acceptance varies depending on opportunity and necessity |
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31 | (1) |
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Public water supply from polluted water sources |
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31 | (1) |
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Advances in water reclamation technologies |
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31 | (1) |
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Challenges for water reclamation and reuse |
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32 | (1) |
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Problems and Discussion Topics |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (4) |
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Water Reuse: Past and Current Practices |
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37 | (34) |
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38 | (1) |
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Evolution of Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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39 | (6) |
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Historical development prior to 1960 |
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39 | (2) |
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Era of water reclamation and reuse in the United States-post-1960 |
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41 | (4) |
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Impact of State and Federal Statutes on Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (1) |
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The Safe Drinking Water Act |
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46 | (1) |
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Water Reuse---Current Status in the United States |
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46 | (1) |
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Withdrawal of water from surface and groundwater sources |
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46 | (1) |
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Availability and reuse of treated wastewater |
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46 | (1) |
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Milestone water reuse projects and research studies |
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47 | (1) |
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Water Reuse in California: A Case Study |
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47 | (6) |
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Experience with water reuse |
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47 | (1) |
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Current water reuse status |
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48 | (3) |
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Water reuse policies and recycling regulations |
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51 | (1) |
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Potential future uses of reclaimed water |
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52 | (1) |
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Water Reuse in Florida: A Case Study |
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53 | (5) |
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Experience with water reuse |
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54 | (1) |
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Current water reuse status |
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54 | (2) |
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Water reuse policies and recycling regulations |
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56 | (1) |
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Potential future uses of reclaimed water |
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56 | (2) |
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Water Reuse in Other Parts of the World |
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58 | (5) |
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Significant developments worldwide |
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58 | (1) |
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The World Health Organization's water reuse guidelines |
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59 | (1) |
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Water reuse in developing countries |
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59 | (4) |
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Summary and Lessons Learned |
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63 | (8) |
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Problems and Discussion Topics |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (5) |
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Part 2 Health and Environmental Concerns in Water Reuse |
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71 | (184) |
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Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater and Related Health and Environmental Issues |
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73 | (58) |
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74 | (3) |
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Wastewater in Public Water Supplies---de facto Potable Reuse |
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77 | (1) |
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Presence of treated wastewater in public water supplies |
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78 | (1) |
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Impact of the presence of treated wastewater on public water supplies |
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78 | (1) |
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Introduction to Waterborne Diseases and Health Issues |
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78 | (5) |
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Important historical events |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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Etiology of waterborne disease |
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81 | (2) |
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Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms |
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83 | (9) |
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Terminology conventions for organisms |
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83 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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83 | (4) |
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87 | (2) |
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89 | (1) |
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89 | (3) |
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92 | (2) |
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Characteristics of an ideal indicator organism |
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92 | (1) |
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The coliform group bacteria |
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93 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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Other indicator organisms |
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94 | (1) |
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Occurrence of Microbial Pathogens in Untreated and Treated Wastewater and in the Environment |
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94 | (9) |
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Pathogens in untreated wastewater |
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94 | (3) |
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Pathogens in treated wastewater |
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97 | (5) |
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Pathogens in the environment |
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102 | (1) |
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Survival of pathogenic organisms |
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102 | (1) |
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Chemical Constituents in Untreated and Treated Wastewater |
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103 | (14) |
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Chemical constituents in untreated wastewater |
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103 | (1) |
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Constituents added through domestic commercial and industrial usage |
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104 | (4) |
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Chemical constituents in treated wastewater |
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108 | (5) |
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Formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) |
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113 | (1) |
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Comparison of treated wastewater to natural water |
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114 | (1) |
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Use of surrogate parameters |
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115 | (2) |
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Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater |
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117 | (3) |
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Endocrine disruptors and pharmaceutically active chemicals |
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117 | (1) |
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Some specific constituents with emerging concern |
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118 | (2) |
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New and reemerging microorganisms |
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120 | (1) |
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120 | (11) |
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Effects on soils and plants |
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121 | (1) |
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Effects on surface water and groundwater |
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121 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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Effects on development and land use |
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122 | (1) |
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Problems and Discussion Topics |
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122 | (2) |
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124 | (7) |
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Water Reuse Regulations and Guidelines |
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131 | (60) |
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132 | (2) |
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Understanding Regulatory Terminology |
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134 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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Standard versus criterion |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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Difference between regulations and guidelines |
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135 | (1) |
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Water reclamation and reuse |
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135 | (1) |
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Development of Standards, Regulations, and Guidelines for Water Reuse |
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135 | (4) |
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Basis for water quality standards |
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136 | (1) |
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Development of water reuse regulations and guidelines |
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136 | (3) |
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139 | (1) |
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General Regulatory Considerations Related to Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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139 | (10) |
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Constituents and physical properties of concern in wastewater |
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139 | (3) |
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Wastewater treatment and water quality considerations |
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142 | (3) |
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Reclaimed water quality monitoring |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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Reclaimed water application rates |
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147 | (1) |
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Aerosols and windborne sprays |
|
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147 | (2) |
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Regulatory Considerations for Specific Water Reuse Applications |
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149 | (6) |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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Dual distribution systems and in-building uses |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (1) |
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153 | (1) |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (1) |
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Regulatory Considerations for Indirect Potable Reuse |
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|
155 | (2) |
|
Use of the most protected water source |
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155 | (1) |
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Influence of the two water acts |
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|
155 | (1) |
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Concerns for trace chemical constituents and pathogens |
|
|
156 | (1) |
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Assessment of health risks |
|
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157 | (1) |
|
State Water Reuse Regulations |
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157 | (12) |
|
Status of water reuse regulations and guidelines |
|
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158 | (1) |
|
Regulations and guidelines for specific reuse applications |
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158 | (7) |
|
Regulatory requirements for nonpotable uses of reclaimed water |
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165 | (2) |
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State regulations for indirect potable reuse |
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167 | (2) |
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U.S. EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse |
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169 | (10) |
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Disinfection requirements |
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169 | (9) |
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178 | (1) |
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|
178 | (1) |
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Recommendations for indirect potable reuse |
|
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178 | (1) |
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World Health Organization Guidelines for Water Reuse |
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179 | (5) |
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1989 WHO guidelines for agriculture and aquaculture |
|
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180 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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Disability adjusted life years |
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180 | (1) |
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Concept of tolerable (acceptable) risk |
|
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181 | (1) |
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Tolerable microbial risk in water |
|
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181 | (1) |
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2006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture |
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182 | (2) |
|
Future Directions in Regulations and Guidelines |
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184 | (7) |
|
Continuing development of state standards, regulations, and guidelines |
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184 | (1) |
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Technical advances in treatment processes |
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184 | (1) |
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184 | (1) |
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Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
185 | (2) |
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187 | (4) |
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Health Risk Analysis in Water Reuse Applications |
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191 | (64) |
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192 | (1) |
|
Risk Analysis: An Overview |
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193 | (4) |
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Historical development of risk assessment |
|
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194 | (1) |
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Objectives and applications of human health risk assessment |
|
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194 | (1) |
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Elements of risk analysis |
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194 | (2) |
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Risk analysis: definitions and concepts |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (8) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (4) |
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204 | (1) |
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204 | (1) |
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Comparison of human health and ecological risk assessment |
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205 | (1) |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (1) |
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Tools and Methods Used in Risk Assessment |
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207 | (8) |
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Concepts from public health |
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207 | (1) |
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Concepts from epidemiology |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (4) |
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National toxicology program cancer bioassay |
|
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213 | (1) |
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Ecotoxicology: environmental effects |
|
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214 | (1) |
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215 | (10) |
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Safety and risk determination in regulation of chemical agents |
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215 | (5) |
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Risks from potential nonthreshold toxicants |
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220 | (4) |
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224 | (1) |
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Chemical risk assessment summary |
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225 | (1) |
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Microbial Risk Assessment |
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225 | (9) |
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Infectious disease paradigm for microbial risk assessment |
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225 | (2) |
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Microbial risk assessment methods |
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227 | (1) |
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Static microbial risk assessment models |
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227 | (2) |
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Dynamic microbial risk assessment models |
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229 | (3) |
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Selecting a microbial risk model |
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232 | (2) |
|
Application of Microbial Risk Assessment in Water Reuse Applications |
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234 | (15) |
|
Microbial risk assessment employing a static model |
|
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234 | (5) |
|
Microbial risk assessment employing dynamic models |
|
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239 | (5) |
|
Risk assessment for water reuse from enteric viruses |
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244 | (5) |
|
Limitations in Applying Risk Assessment to Water Reuse Applications |
|
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249 | (6) |
|
Relative nature of risk assessment |
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249 | (1) |
|
Inadequate consideration of secondary infections |
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249 | (1) |
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Limited dose-response data |
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250 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
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250 | (1) |
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|
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251 | (4) |
|
Part 3 Technologies and Systems for Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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255 | (672) |
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Water Reuse Technologies and Treatment Systems: An Overview |
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257 | (38) |
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258 | (2) |
|
Constituents in Untreated Municipal Wastewater |
|
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260 | (1) |
|
Technology Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse |
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260 | (5) |
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262 | (1) |
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Water quality requirements |
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262 | (1) |
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|
263 | (2) |
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Need for multiple treatment technologies |
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265 | (1) |
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Treatment Technologies for Water Reclamation Applications |
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265 | (7) |
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Removal of dissolved organic matter, suspended solids, and nutrients by secondary treatment |
|
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268 | (1) |
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Removal of residual particulate matter in secondary effluent |
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269 | (2) |
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Removal of residual dissolved constituents |
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271 | (1) |
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Removal of trace constituents |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (1) |
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Important Factors in the Selection of Technologies for Water Reuse |
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272 | (9) |
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Multiple water reuse applications |
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273 | (1) |
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Need to remove trace constituents |
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273 | (3) |
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Need to conduct pilot-scale testing |
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276 | (1) |
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276 | (3) |
|
Standby and redundancy considerations |
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279 | (1) |
|
Infrastructure needs for water reuse applications |
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280 | (1) |
|
Impact of Treatment Plant Location on Water Reuse |
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281 | (5) |
|
Centralized treatment plants |
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282 | (1) |
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Satellite treatment facilities |
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282 | (1) |
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Decentralized treatment facilities |
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283 | (3) |
|
The Future of Water Reclamation Technologies and Treatment Systems |
|
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286 | (9) |
|
Implication of trace constituents on future water reuse |
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287 | (1) |
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287 | (1) |
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Retrofitting existing treatment plants |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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Satellite treatment systems |
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289 | (1) |
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Decentralized treatment facilities and systems |
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289 | (1) |
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New infrastructure concepts and designs |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
292 | (1) |
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293 | (2) |
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Removal of Constituents by Secondary Treatment |
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295 | (78) |
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|
296 | (3) |
|
Constituents in Untreated Wastewater |
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299 | (5) |
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299 | (1) |
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Typical constituent concentration values |
|
|
299 | (2) |
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Variability of mass loadings |
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|
301 | (3) |
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Technologies for Water Reuse Applications |
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304 | (3) |
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Nonmembrane Processes for Secondary Treatment |
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307 | (13) |
|
Suitability for reclaimed water applications |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (2) |
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Process performance expectations |
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310 | (8) |
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Importance of secondary sedimentation tank design |
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318 | (2) |
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Nonmembrane Processes for the Control and Removal of Nutrients in Secondary Treatment |
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320 | (8) |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (3) |
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324 | (4) |
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Process performance expectations |
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328 | (1) |
|
Membrane Bioreactor Processes for Secondary Treatment |
|
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328 | (12) |
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Description of membrane bioreactors |
|
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330 | (1) |
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Suitability of MBRs for reclaimed water applications |
|
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331 | (1) |
|
Types of membrane bioreactor systems |
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332 | (1) |
|
Principal proprietary submerged membrane systems |
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333 | (5) |
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338 | (2) |
|
Process performance expectations |
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340 | (1) |
|
Analysis and Design of Membrane Bioreactor Processes |
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340 | (21) |
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340 | (13) |
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353 | (5) |
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358 | (3) |
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361 | (1) |
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Issues in the Selection of Secondary Treatment Processes |
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361 | (12) |
|
Expansion of an existing plant vs. construction of a new plant |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
|
Comparative performance of treatment processes |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
|
Type of disinfection process |
|
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362 | (1) |
|
Future water quality requirements |
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363 | (1) |
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363 | (1) |
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|
364 | (4) |
|
Economic and other considerations |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
368 | (3) |
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|
|
371 | (2) |
|
Removal of Residual Particulate Matter |
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|
373 | (88) |
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374 | (1) |
|
Characteristics of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter from Secondary Treatment Processes |
|
|
375 | (13) |
|
Residual constituents and properties of concern |
|
|
375 | (10) |
|
Removal of residual particles from secondary treatment processes |
|
|
385 | (3) |
|
Technologies for the Removal of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter |
|
|
388 | (4) |
|
Technologies for reclaimed water applications |
|
|
388 | (2) |
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|
|
390 | (1) |
|
Process performance expectations |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
Suitability for reclaimed water applications |
|
|
392 | (1) |
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|
392 | (25) |
|
Available filtration technologies |
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|
392 | (6) |
|
Performance of depth filters |
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398 | (9) |
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407 | (8) |
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415 | (2) |
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417 | (1) |
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|
417 | (8) |
|
Available filtration technologies |
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|
419 | (3) |
|
Performance of surface filters |
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422 | (1) |
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423 | (2) |
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425 | (1) |
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|
425 | (20) |
|
Membrane terminology, types, classification, and flow patterns |
|
|
426 | (4) |
|
Microfiltration and ultrafiltration |
|
|
430 | (5) |
|
Process analysis for MF and UF membranes |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
Operating characteristics and strategies for MF and UF membranes |
|
|
436 | (1) |
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436 | (5) |
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441 | (1) |
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|
441 | (2) |
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|
443 | (2) |
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|
445 | (9) |
|
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|
445 | (3) |
|
Performance of DAF process |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
|
|
448 | (5) |
|
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Issues in the Selection of Technologies for the Removal of Residual Particulate Matter |
|
|
454 | (7) |
|
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Comparative performance of technologies |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Results of pilot-scale studies |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Type of disinfection process |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Future water quality requirements |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
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|
455 | (1) |
|
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|
455 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
456 | (3) |
|
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
Removal of Dissolved Constituents with Membranes |
|
|
461 | (64) |
|
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Dissolved Constituents |
|
|
463 | (4) |
|
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
Definition of osmotic pressure |
|
|
463 | (2) |
|
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
Typical process applications and flow diagrams |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
|
|
467 | (6) |
|
Types of membranes used in nanofiltration |
|
|
468 | (3) |
|
Application of nanofiltration |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
|
471 | (2) |
|
|
|
473 | (2) |
|
Types of membranes used in reverse osmosis |
|
|
473 | (1) |
|
Application of reverse osmosis |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
Design and Operational Considerations for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis Systems |
|
|
475 | (24) |
|
|
|
475 | (2) |
|
|
|
477 | (2) |
|
|
|
479 | (3) |
|
Membrane flux and area requirements |
|
|
482 | (5) |
|
|
|
487 | (3) |
|
Control of membrane fouling |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Process operating parameters |
|
|
490 | (2) |
|
|
|
492 | (7) |
|
Pilot-Plant Studies for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
|
|
501 | (8) |
|
Description of the electrodialysis process |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
|
|
503 | (3) |
|
Design and operating considerations |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Membrane and electrode life |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
Advantages and disadvantages of electrodialysis versus reverse osmosis |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
Management of Membrane Waste Streams |
|
|
509 | (16) |
|
Membrane concentrate issues |
|
|
509 | (2) |
|
Thickening and drying of waste streams |
|
|
511 | (4) |
|
Ultimate disposal methods for membrane waste streams |
|
|
515 | (4) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
519 | (3) |
|
|
|
522 | (3) |
|
Removal of Residual Trace Constituents |
|
|
525 | (74) |
|
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Trace Constituents |
|
|
528 | (4) |
|
Separation processes based on mass transfer |
|
|
528 | (3) |
|
Chemical and biological transformation processes |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
|
|
532 | (19) |
|
Applications for adsorption |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
|
|
533 | (3) |
|
Basic considerations for adsorption processes |
|
|
536 | (15) |
|
Adsorption process limitations |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
|
|
551 | (9) |
|
Applications for ion exchange |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
Basic considerations for ion exchange processes |
|
|
555 | (4) |
|
Ion exchange process limitations |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
|
|
560 | (3) |
|
Applications for distillation |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
|
|
560 | (2) |
|
Basic considerations for distillation processes |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
Distillation process limitations |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
|
|
563 | (4) |
|
Applications for conventional chemical oxidation |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
Oxidants used in chemical oxidation processes |
|
|
563 | (3) |
|
Basic considerations for chemical oxidation processes |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
Chemical oxidation process limitations |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
|
|
567 | (11) |
|
Applications for advanced oxidation |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
Processes for advanced oxidation |
|
|
569 | (5) |
|
Basic considerations for advanced oxidation processes |
|
|
574 | (3) |
|
Advanced oxidation process limitations |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
|
|
578 | (8) |
|
Applications for photolysis |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Basic considerations for photolysis processes |
|
|
579 | (7) |
|
Photolysis process limitations |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
Advanced Biological Transformations |
|
|
586 | (13) |
|
Basic considerations for advanced biological treatment processes |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
Advanced biological treatment processes |
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
Limitations of advanced biological transformation processes |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
591 | (3) |
|
|
|
594 | (5) |
|
Disinfection Processes for Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
599 | (126) |
|
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
Disinfection Technologies Used for Water Reclamation |
|
|
602 | (4) |
|
Characteristics for an ideal disinfectant |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Disinfection agents and methods in water reclamation |
|
|
602 | (2) |
|
Mechanisms used to explain action of disinfectants |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
Comparison of reclaimed water disinfectants |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
Practical Considerations and Issues for Disinfection |
|
|
606 | (16) |
|
Physical facilities used for disinfection |
|
|
606 | (3) |
|
Factors affecting performance |
|
|
609 | (7) |
|
Development of the CRt Concept for predicting disinfection performance |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
Application of the CRt concept for reclaimed water disinfection |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
Performance comparison of disinfection technologies |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Advantages and disadvantages of alternative disinfection technologies |
|
|
618 | (4) |
|
Disinfection with Chlorine |
|
|
622 | (32) |
|
Characteristics of chlorine compounds |
|
|
622 | (2) |
|
Chemistry of chlorine compounds |
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
Breakpoint reaction with chlorine |
|
|
626 | (5) |
|
Measurement and reporting of disinfection process variables |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
Germicidal efficiency of chlorine and various chlorine compounds in clean water |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
Form of residual chlorine and contact time |
|
|
631 | (2) |
|
Factors that affect disinfection of reclaimed water with chlorine |
|
|
633 | (2) |
|
Chemical characteristics of the reclaimed water |
|
|
635 | (4) |
|
Modeling the chlorine disinfection process |
|
|
639 | (2) |
|
Required chlorine dosages for disinfection |
|
|
641 | (3) |
|
Assessing the hydraulic performance of chlorine contact basins |
|
|
644 | (6) |
|
Formation and control of disinfection byproducts |
|
|
650 | (4) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide |
|
|
654 | (3) |
|
Characteristics of chlorine dioxide |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
Chlorine dioxide chemistry |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
Byproduct formation and control |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (3) |
|
Dechlorination of reclaimed water treated with chlorine and chlorine compounds |
|
|
657 | (3) |
|
Dechlorination of chlorine dioxide with sulfur dioxide |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (11) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Ozone disinfection systems components |
|
|
662 | (4) |
|
Effectiveness of ozone as a disinfectant |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Modeling the ozone disinfection process |
|
|
666 | (3) |
|
Required ozone dosages for disinfection |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Byproduct formation and control |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
Environmental impacts of using ozone |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Other benefits of using ozone |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Other Chemical Disinfection Methods |
|
|
671 | (3) |
|
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Combined chemical disinfection processes |
|
|
672 | (2) |
|
Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation |
|
|
674 | (51) |
|
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
|
674 | (4) |
|
UV disinfection system configurations |
|
|
678 | (4) |
|
Mechanism of inactivation by UV irradiation |
|
|
682 | (2) |
|
Factors affecting germicidal effectiveness of UV irradiation |
|
|
684 | (6) |
|
Modeling the UV disinfection process |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
691 | (9) |
|
Ultraviolet disinfection guidelines |
|
|
700 | (8) |
|
Analysis of a UV disinfection system |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
Operational issues with UV disinfection systems |
|
|
708 | (3) |
|
Environmental impacts of UV irradiation |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
712 | (6) |
|
|
|
718 | (7) |
|
Satellite Treatment Systems for Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
725 | (38) |
|
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
Introduction to Satellite Systems |
|
|
727 | (3) |
|
Types of satellite treatment systems |
|
|
728 | (2) |
|
Important factors in selecting the use of satellite systems |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
Planning Considerations for Satellite Systems |
|
|
730 | (5) |
|
Identification of near-term and future reclaimed water needs |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
Integration with existing facilities |
|
|
731 | (1) |
|
|
|
731 | (3) |
|
Public perception, legal aspects, and institutional issues |
|
|
734 | (1) |
|
|
|
735 | (1) |
|
Environmental considerations |
|
|
735 | (1) |
|
|
|
735 | (1) |
|
Satellite Systems for Nonagricultural Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
735 | (3) |
|
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
Lakes and recreational enhancement |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
Collection System Requirements |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
Interception type satellite system |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
Extraction type satellite system |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
Upstream type satellite system |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
Wastewater Characteristics |
|
|
739 | (2) |
|
Interception type satellite system |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
Extraction type satellite system |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
Upstream type satellite system |
|
|
741 | (1) |
|
Infrastructure Facilities for Satellite Treatment Systems |
|
|
741 | (4) |
|
Diversion and junction structures |
|
|
741 | (3) |
|
Flow equalization and storage |
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
Pumping, transmission, and distribution of reclaimed water |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
Treatment Technologies for Satellite Systems |
|
|
745 | (3) |
|
Conventional technologies |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
|
|
746 | (1) |
|
|
|
746 | (2) |
|
Integration with Existing Facilities |
|
|
748 | (3) |
|
Case Study 1: Solaire Building New York, New York |
|
|
751 | (4) |
|
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
|
|
753 | (2) |
|
Case Study 2: Water Reclamation and Reuse in Tokyo, Japan |
|
|
755 | (5) |
|
|
|
755 | (1) |
|
|
|
755 | (1) |
|
|
|
756 | (2) |
|
|
|
758 | (2) |
|
Case Study 3: City of Upland, California |
|
|
760 | (3) |
|
|
|
760 | (1) |
|
|
|
760 | (1) |
|
|
|
760 | (1) |
|
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
Onsite and Decentralized Systems for Water Reuse |
|
|
763 | (66) |
|
|
|
764 | (2) |
|
Introduction to Decentralized Systems |
|
|
766 | (4) |
|
Definition of decentralized systems |
|
|
766 | (1) |
|
Importance of decentralized systems |
|
|
767 | (3) |
|
Integration with centralized systems |
|
|
770 | (1) |
|
Types of Decentralized Systems |
|
|
770 | (4) |
|
Individual onsite systems |
|
|
771 | (1) |
|
|
|
771 | (1) |
|
Housing development and small community systems |
|
|
772 | (2) |
|
Wastewater Flowrates and Characteristics |
|
|
774 | (11) |
|
|
|
774 | (4) |
|
Wastewater constituent concentrations |
|
|
778 | (7) |
|
|
|
785 | (21) |
|
Source separating systems |
|
|
786 | (2) |
|
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
|
|
788 | (4) |
|
|
|
792 | (5) |
|
|
|
797 | (5) |
|
|
|
802 | (2) |
|
|
|
804 | (1) |
|
|
|
804 | (1) |
|
|
|
804 | (2) |
|
Technologies for Housing Developments and Small Community Systems |
|
|
806 | (10) |
|
|
|
807 | (8) |
|
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
Decentralized Water Reuse Opportunities |
|
|
816 | (5) |
|
Landscape irrigation systems |
|
|
816 | (2) |
|
Irrigation with greywater |
|
|
818 | (1) |
|
|
|
818 | (3) |
|
Self-contained recycle systems |
|
|
821 | (1) |
|
|
|
821 | (1) |
|
Management and Monitoring of Decentralized Systems |
|
|
821 | (8) |
|
Types of management structures |
|
|
821 | (3) |
|
Monitoring and control equipment |
|
|
824 | (2) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
|
|
827 | (2) |
|
Distribution and Storage of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
829 | (72) |
|
|
|
830 | (1) |
|
Issues in the Planning Process |
|
|
831 | (2) |
|
Type, size, and location of facilities |
|
|
831 | (1) |
|
Individual reclaimed water system versus dual distribution system |
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
Public concerns and involvement |
|
|
833 | (1) |
|
Planning and Conceptual Design of Distribution and Storage Facilities |
|
|
833 | (23) |
|
Location of reclaimed water supply, major users, and demands |
|
|
834 | (1) |
|
Quantities and pressure requirements for major demands |
|
|
834 | (2) |
|
Distribution system network |
|
|
836 | (5) |
|
|
|
841 | (4) |
|
Distribution system analysis |
|
|
845 | (2) |
|
Optimization of distribution system |
|
|
847 | (9) |
|
|
|
856 | (10) |
|
Location of reclaimed water pipelines |
|
|
856 | (2) |
|
Design criteria for reclaimed water pipelines |
|
|
858 | (1) |
|
|
|
858 | (2) |
|
|
|
860 | (1) |
|
|
|
861 | (1) |
|
|
|
862 | (1) |
|
Distribution system valves |
|
|
863 | (1) |
|
Distribution system appurtenances |
|
|
863 | (3) |
|
|
|
866 | (11) |
|
Pumping station location and site layout |
|
|
866 | (1) |
|
|
|
867 | (3) |
|
Pumping station performance |
|
|
870 | (1) |
|
Constant versus variable speed operation |
|
|
870 | (1) |
|
|
|
871 | (1) |
|
Equipment and piping layout |
|
|
872 | (1) |
|
|
|
872 | (3) |
|
Effect of pump operating schedule on system design |
|
|
875 | (2) |
|
Design of Reclaimed Water Storage Facilities |
|
|
877 | (5) |
|
Location of reclaimed water reservoirs |
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
Facility and site layout for reservoirs, piping, and appurtenances |
|
|
879 | (2) |
|
Materials of construction |
|
|
881 | (1) |
|
Protective coatings---interior and exterior |
|
|
881 | (1) |
|
Operation and Maintenance of Distribution Facilities |
|
|
882 | (2) |
|
|
|
883 | (1) |
|
|
|
884 | (1) |
|
Water Quality Management Issues in Reclaimed Water Distribution and Storage |
|
|
884 | (17) |
|
|
|
885 | (2) |
|
Impact of water quality issues |
|
|
887 | (1) |
|
The effect of storage on water quality changes |
|
|
887 | (2) |
|
Strategies for managing water quality in open and enclosed reservoirs |
|
|
889 | (3) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
892 | (6) |
|
|
|
898 | (3) |
|
|
|
901 | (26) |
|
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
Overview of Dual Plumbing Systems |
|
|
902 | (5) |
|
Rationale for dual plumbing systems |
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
Applications for dual plumbing systems |
|
|
903 | (4) |
|
Planning Considerations for Dual Plumbing Systems |
|
|
907 | (1) |
|
Applications for dual plumbing systems |
|
|
907 | (1) |
|
Regulations and codes governing dual plumbing systems |
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
Applicable health and safety regulations |
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
Design Considerations for Dual Distribution Systems |
|
|
908 | (5) |
|
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
|
|
908 | (5) |
|
Inspection and Operating Considerations |
|
|
913 | (2) |
|
Case Study: Irvine Ranch Water District, Orange County, California |
|
|
915 | (4) |
|
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
|
|
916 | (2) |
|
|
|
918 | (1) |
|
|
|
919 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Rouse Hill Recycled Water Area Project (Australia) |
|
|
919 | (2) |
|
|
|
919 | (1) |
|
|
|
920 | (1) |
|
|
|
920 | (1) |
|
|
|
920 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Serrano, California |
|
|
921 | (6) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
923 | (2) |
|
|
|
925 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
925 | (1) |
|
|
|
926 | (1) |
|
Part 4 Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
927 | (452) |
|
Water Reuse Applications: An Overview |
|
|
929 | (18) |
|
|
|
930 | (1) |
|
|
|
930 | (4) |
|
|
|
931 | (1) |
|
|
|
931 | (1) |
|
|
|
931 | (2) |
|
|
|
933 | (1) |
|
Environmental and recreational uses |
|
|
933 | (1) |
|
|
|
933 | (1) |
|
Indirect potable reuse through surface water augmentation |
|
|
933 | (1) |
|
|
|
934 | (1) |
|
Water reuse applications in other parts of the world |
|
|
934 | (1) |
|
|
|
934 | (3) |
|
|
|
934 | (1) |
|
water resource opportunities |
|
|
935 | (1) |
|
Reliability of water supply |
|
|
935 | (1) |
|
|
|
935 | (1) |
|
|
|
935 | (1) |
|
|
|
936 | (1) |
|
Issues and constraints for specific applications |
|
|
937 | (1) |
|
Important Factors in the Selection of Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
937 | (4) |
|
Water quality considerations |
|
|
937 | (2) |
|
|
|
939 | (1) |
|
Matching supply and demand |
|
|
939 | (1) |
|
Infrastructure requirements |
|
|
939 | (1) |
|
Economic feasibility (affordability) |
|
|
940 | (1) |
|
Environmental considerations |
|
|
941 | (1) |
|
Future Trends in Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
941 | (6) |
|
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
Water supply augmentation |
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
Decentralized and satellite systems |
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
New treatment technologies |
|
|
942 | (2) |
|
Issues associated with potable reuse |
|
|
944 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
944 | (1) |
|
|
|
944 | (3) |
|
Agricultural Uses of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
947 | (96) |
|
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
Agricultural Irrigation with Reclaimed Water: An Overview |
|
|
949 | (5) |
|
Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the United States |
|
|
950 | (2) |
|
Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the world |
|
|
952 | (1) |
|
Regulations and guidelines related to agricultural irrigation with reclaimed water |
|
|
953 | (1) |
|
Agronomics and Water Quality Considerations |
|
|
954 | (17) |
|
|
|
955 | (3) |
|
|
|
958 | (1) |
|
Salinity, sodicity, and specific ion toxicity |
|
|
959 | (7) |
|
Trace elements and nutrients |
|
|
966 | (5) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
Elements for the Design of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems |
|
|
971 | (37) |
|
Water reclamation and reclaimed water quantity and quality |
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
Selection of the type of irrigation system |
|
|
977 | (9) |
|
|
|
986 | (3) |
|
Estimation of water application rate |
|
|
989 | (8) |
|
|
|
997 | (1) |
|
|
|
998 | (5) |
|
Drainage water management and disposal |
|
|
1003 | (1) |
|
|
|
1003 | (5) |
|
|
|
1008 | (1) |
|
Operation and Maintenance of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems |
|
|
1008 | (7) |
|
|
|
1009 | (1) |
|
|
|
1009 | (2) |
|
|
|
1011 | (1) |
|
Effects of reclaimed water irrigation on soils and crops |
|
|
1011 | (3) |
|
|
|
1014 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture---Monterey, California |
|
|
1015 | (7) |
|
|
|
1016 | (1) |
|
|
|
1016 | (1) |
|
|
|
1016 | (1) |
|
|
|
1017 | (4) |
|
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
Recycled water food safety study |
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Water Conserv II, Florida |
|
|
1022 | (6) |
|
|
|
1023 | (1) |
|
|
|
1023 | (1) |
|
|
|
1023 | (4) |
|
Importance of Water Conserv II |
|
|
1027 | (1) |
|
|
|
1027 | (1) |
|
Case Study: The Virginia Pipeline Scheme, South Australia---Seasonal ASR of Reclaimed Water for irrigation |
|
|
1028 | (15) |
|
|
|
1028 | (1) |
|
|
|
1029 | (1) |
|
|
|
1029 | (1) |
|
|
|
1029 | (1) |
|
|
|
1030 | (2) |
|
Performance and operations |
|
|
1032 | (3) |
|
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1035 | (3) |
|
|
|
1038 | (5) |
|
Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1043 | (60) |
|
|
|
1044 | (1) |
|
Landscape Irrigation: An Overview |
|
|
1045 | (2) |
|
Definition of landscape irrigation |
|
|
1045 | (1) |
|
Reclaimed water use for landscape irrigation in the United States |
|
|
1046 | (1) |
|
Design and Operational Considerations for Reclaimed Water Landscape Irrigation Systems |
|
|
1047 | (23) |
|
Water quality requirements |
|
|
1047 | (3) |
|
Landscape plant selection |
|
|
1050 | (4) |
|
|
|
1054 | (1) |
|
Estimation of water needs |
|
|
1054 | (11) |
|
Application rate and irrigation schedule |
|
|
1065 | (1) |
|
Management of demand-supply balance |
|
|
1065 | (1) |
|
Operation and maintenance issues |
|
|
1066 | (4) |
|
Golf Course Irrigation with Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1070 | (6) |
|
Water quality and agronomic considerations |
|
|
1070 | (2) |
|
Reclaimed water supply and storage |
|
|
1072 | (3) |
|
Distribution system design considerations |
|
|
1075 | (1) |
|
Leaching, drainage, and runoff |
|
|
1076 | (1) |
|
|
|
1076 | (1) |
|
Irrigation of Public Areas with Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1076 | (4) |
|
Irrigation of public Areas |
|
|
1078 | (1) |
|
Reclaimed water treatment and water quality |
|
|
1079 | (1) |
|
Conveyance and distribution system |
|
|
1079 | (1) |
|
Aesthetics and public acceptance |
|
|
1079 | (1) |
|
Operation and maintenance issues |
|
|
1080 | (1) |
|
Residential Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1080 | (2) |
|
Residential landscape irrigation systems |
|
|
1080 | (1) |
|
Reclaimed water treatment and water quality |
|
|
1081 | (1) |
|
Conveyance and distribution system |
|
|
1081 | (1) |
|
Operation and maintenance issues |
|
|
1082 | (1) |
|
Landscape Irrigation with Decentralized Treatment and Subsurface Irrigation Systems |
|
|
1082 | (4) |
|
Subsurface drip irrigation for individual on-site and cluster systems |
|
|
1082 | (4) |
|
Irrigation for residential areas |
|
|
1086 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Landscape Irrigation in St. Petersburg, Florida |
|
|
1086 | (7) |
|
|
|
1087 | (1) |
|
|
|
1087 | (1) |
|
|
|
1087 | (2) |
|
Project Greenleaf and resource management |
|
|
1089 | (2) |
|
Landscape irrigation in the city of St. Petersburg |
|
|
1091 | (2) |
|
|
|
1093 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Residential Irrigation in El Dorado Hills, California |
|
|
1093 | (10) |
|
|
|
1094 | (1) |
|
|
|
1094 | (2) |
|
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1097 | (2) |
|
|
|
1099 | (4) |
|
Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1103 | (66) |
|
|
|
1104 | (1) |
|
Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water: An Overview |
|
|
1105 | (4) |
|
Status of water use for industrial applications in the United States |
|
|
1105 | (2) |
|
Water management in industries |
|
|
1107 | (1) |
|
Factors affecting the use of reclaimed water for industrial applications |
|
|
1108 | (1) |
|
Water Quality Issues for Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1109 | (23) |
|
General water quality considerations |
|
|
1110 | (1) |
|
|
|
1110 | (5) |
|
Indexes for assessing effects of reclaimed water quality on reuse systems |
|
|
1115 | (11) |
|
Corrosion management options |
|
|
1126 | (1) |
|
|
|
1127 | (2) |
|
Accumulation of dissolved constituents |
|
|
1129 | (3) |
|
|
|
1132 | (9) |
|
|
|
1132 | (1) |
|
Water quality considerations |
|
|
1132 | (3) |
|
Design and operational considerations |
|
|
1135 | (3) |
|
|
|
1138 | (3) |
|
Other Industrial Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
1141 | (14) |
|
|
|
1141 | (6) |
|
|
|
1147 | (3) |
|
|
|
1150 | (4) |
|
Other industrial applications |
|
|
1154 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Cooling Tower at a Thermal Power Generation Plant, Denver, Colorado |
|
|
1155 | (3) |
|
|
|
1155 | (1) |
|
|
|
1156 | (2) |
|
|
|
1158 | (1) |
|
|
|
1158 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water in West Basin Municipal Water District, California |
|
|
1158 | (11) |
|
|
|
1158 | (1) |
|
|
|
1158 | (1) |
|
|
|
1159 | (2) |
|
|
|
1161 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1161 | (4) |
|
|
|
1165 | (4) |
|
Urban Nonirrigation Water Reuse Applications |
|
|
1169 | (34) |
|
|
|
1170 | (1) |
|
Urban Water Use and Water Reuse Applications: An Overview |
|
|
1171 | (4) |
|
Domestic potable water use in the United States |
|
|
1171 | (1) |
|
Commercial water use in the United States |
|
|
1172 | (1) |
|
Urban nonirrigation water reuse in the United States |
|
|
1172 | (1) |
|
Urban nonirrigation water reuse in other countries |
|
|
1172 | (3) |
|
Factors Affecting the Use of Reclaimed Water for Urban Nonirrigation Reuse Applications |
|
|
1175 | (4) |
|
|
|
1175 | (1) |
|
Water quality and supply issues |
|
|
1176 | (3) |
|
|
|
1179 | (1) |
|
|
|
1179 | (4) |
|
Description of air conditioning systems |
|
|
1179 | (2) |
|
Utilizing reclaimed water for air conditioning systems |
|
|
1181 | (1) |
|
Water quality considerations |
|
|
1181 | (2) |
|
|
|
1183 | (1) |
|
|
|
1183 | (5) |
|
|
|
1186 | (1) |
|
Water quality considerations |
|
|
1187 | (1) |
|
|
|
1187 | (1) |
|
|
|
1188 | (1) |
|
Toilet and Urinal Flushing |
|
|
1188 | (7) |
|
|
|
1188 | (1) |
|
Water quality considerations |
|
|
1188 | (4) |
|
|
|
1192 | (1) |
|
Satellite and decentralized systems |
|
|
1193 | (1) |
|
|
|
1193 | (2) |
|
|
|
1195 | (2) |
|
Car and other vehicle washing |
|
|
1195 | (1) |
|
|
|
1196 | (1) |
|
|
|
1197 | (1) |
|
|
|
1197 | (1) |
|
|
|
1197 | (1) |
|
Ponds and lakes in public parks |
|
|
1198 | (1) |
|
Road Care and Maintenance |
|
|
1198 | (5) |
|
Dust control and street cleaning |
|
|
1199 | (1) |
|
|
|
1199 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1200 | (1) |
|
|
|
1201 | (2) |
|
Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1203 | (42) |
|
|
|
1204 | (1) |
|
Overview of Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1205 | (5) |
|
Types of environmental and recreational uses |
|
|
1206 | (1) |
|
Important factors influencing environmental and recreational uses of reclaimed water |
|
|
1207 | (3) |
|
|
|
1210 | (12) |
|
|
|
1210 | (3) |
|
Development of wetlands with reclaimed water |
|
|
1213 | (3) |
|
Water quality considerations |
|
|
1216 | (1) |
|
Operations and maintenance |
|
|
1216 | (6) |
|
|
|
1222 | (6) |
|
Aquatic and riparian habitat enhancement with reclaimed water |
|
|
1222 | (2) |
|
Recreational uses of streams augmented with reclaimed water |
|
|
1224 | (1) |
|
Reclaimed water quality requirements |
|
|
1224 | (2) |
|
|
|
1226 | (1) |
|
Operations and maintenance |
|
|
1226 | (2) |
|
|
|
1228 | (3) |
|
Water quality requirements |
|
|
1228 | (2) |
|
Operations and maintenance |
|
|
1230 | (1) |
|
|
|
1230 | (1) |
|
|
|
1231 | (1) |
|
|
|
1231 | (1) |
|
|
|
1231 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Arcata, California |
|
|
1231 | (3) |
|
|
|
1232 | (1) |
|
|
|
1232 | (1) |
|
|
|
1232 | (1) |
|
|
|
1233 | (1) |
|
Case Study: San Luis Obispo, California |
|
|
1234 | (4) |
|
|
|
1234 | (1) |
|
|
|
1235 | (1) |
|
|
|
1235 | (3) |
|
|
|
1238 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Santee Lakes, San Diego, California |
|
|
1238 | (7) |
|
|
|
1239 | (1) |
|
|
|
1239 | (1) |
|
|
|
1239 | (2) |
|
|
|
1241 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1242 | (1) |
|
|
|
1242 | (3) |
|
Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1245 | (58) |
|
|
|
1246 | (2) |
|
Planned Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1248 | (7) |
|
Advantages of subsurface storage |
|
|
1248 | (1) |
|
Types of groundwater recharge |
|
|
1249 | (1) |
|
Components of a groundwater recharge system |
|
|
1250 | (1) |
|
Technologies for groundwater recharge |
|
|
1251 | (2) |
|
Selection of recharge system |
|
|
1253 | (1) |
|
Recovery of recharge water |
|
|
1254 | (1) |
|
Water Quality Requirements |
|
|
1255 | (1) |
|
Water quality challenges for groundwater recharge |
|
|
1255 | (1) |
|
Degree of pretreatment required |
|
|
1255 | (1) |
|
Recharge Using Surface Spreading Basins |
|
|
1256 | (26) |
|
|
|
1256 | (1) |
|
|
|
1257 | (2) |
|
|
|
1259 | (9) |
|
Operation and maintenance issues |
|
|
1268 | (3) |
|
Performance of recharge basins |
|
|
1271 | (8) |
|
|
|
1279 | (1) |
|
Examples of full-scale surface spreading facilities |
|
|
1280 | (2) |
|
Recharge Using Vadose Zone Injection Wells |
|
|
1282 | (5) |
|
|
|
1282 | (1) |
|
|
|
1283 | (1) |
|
|
|
1284 | (1) |
|
Operation and maintenance issues |
|
|
1285 | (1) |
|
Performance of vadose zone injection wells |
|
|
1286 | (1) |
|
Examples of operational full-scale vadose zone injection facilities |
|
|
1286 | (1) |
|
Recharge Using Direct Injection Wells |
|
|
1287 | (6) |
|
|
|
1287 | (1) |
|
|
|
1288 | (1) |
|
|
|
1288 | (2) |
|
Operation and maintenance issues |
|
|
1290 | (1) |
|
Performance of direct injection wells |
|
|
1291 | (1) |
|
Examples of full-scale direct aquifer injection facilities |
|
|
1292 | (1) |
|
Other Methods Used for Groundwater Recharge |
|
|
1293 | (3) |
|
Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) |
|
|
1293 | (1) |
|
Riverbank and dune filtration |
|
|
1294 | (1) |
|
|
|
1295 | (1) |
|
Groundwater recharge using subsurface facilities |
|
|
1296 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Orange County Water District Groundwater Replenishment System |
|
|
1296 | (7) |
|
|
|
1297 | (1) |
|
|
|
1297 | (1) |
|
|
|
1297 | (1) |
|
|
|
1298 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1299 | (1) |
|
|
|
1300 | (3) |
|
Indirect Potable Reuse through Surface Water Augmentation |
|
|
1303 | (42) |
|
|
|
1304 | (1) |
|
Overview of Indirect Potable Reuse |
|
|
1305 | (3) |
|
De facto indirect potable reuse |
|
|
1305 | (2) |
|
Strategies for indirect potable reuse through surface-water augmentation |
|
|
1307 | (1) |
|
|
|
1308 | (1) |
|
Health and Risk Considerations |
|
|
1308 | (1) |
|
Pathogen and trace constituents |
|
|
1308 | (1) |
|
|
|
1309 | (1) |
|
|
|
1309 | (1) |
|
Planning for Indirect Potable Reuse |
|
|
1309 | (5) |
|
Characteristics of the watershed |
|
|
1310 | (1) |
|
Quantity of reclaimed water to be blended |
|
|
1311 | (1) |
|
Water and wastewater treatment requirements |
|
|
1312 | (1) |
|
Institutional considerations |
|
|
1312 | (1) |
|
|
|
1313 | (1) |
|
Technical Considerations for Surface-Water Augmentation in Lakes and Reservoirs |
|
|
1314 | (9) |
|
Characteristics of water supply reservoirs |
|
|
1314 | (5) |
|
Modeling of lakes and reservoirs |
|
|
1319 | (1) |
|
Strategies for augmenting water supply reservoirs |
|
|
1320 | (3) |
|
Case Study: Implementing Indirect Potable Reuse at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority |
|
|
1323 | (6) |
|
|
|
1323 | (1) |
|
|
|
1323 | (1) |
|
Description of treatment components |
|
|
1323 | (3) |
|
Future treatment process directions |
|
|
1326 | (1) |
|
Water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir |
|
|
1327 | (1) |
|
|
|
1328 | (1) |
|
|
|
1328 | (1) |
|
Case Study: City of San Diego Water Repurification Project and Water Reuse Study 2005 |
|
|
1329 | (5) |
|
|
|
1330 | (1) |
|
|
|
1330 | (1) |
|
Wastewater treatment mandates |
|
|
1330 | (1) |
|
Water Repurification Project |
|
|
1331 | (1) |
|
2000 Updated Water Reclamation Master Plan |
|
|
1332 | (1) |
|
City of San Diego Water Reuse Study 2005 |
|
|
1332 | (2) |
|
|
|
1334 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Singapore's NEWater for Indirect Potable Reuse |
|
|
1334 | (6) |
|
|
|
1335 | (1) |
|
|
|
1335 | (1) |
|
NEWater Factory and NEWater |
|
|
1335 | (1) |
|
|
|
1335 | (1) |
|
NEWater demonstration plant performance |
|
|
1336 | (1) |
|
|
|
1336 | (1) |
|
|
|
1337 | (3) |
|
Observations on Indirect Potable Reuse |
|
|
1340 | (5) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1341 | (1) |
|
|
|
1342 | (3) |
|
Direct Potable Reuse of Reclaimed Water |
|
|
1345 | (34) |
|
|
|
1346 | (1) |
|
Issues in Direct Potable Reuse |
|
|
1346 | (2) |
|
|
|
1347 | (1) |
|
|
|
1347 | (1) |
|
Technological capabilities |
|
|
1347 | (1) |
|
|
|
1348 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Emergency Potable Reuse in Chanute, Kansas |
|
|
1348 | (4) |
|
|
|
1348 | (1) |
|
|
|
1349 | (1) |
|
|
|
1349 | (1) |
|
Efficiency of sewage treatment and the overall treatment process |
|
|
1349 | (2) |
|
|
|
1351 | (1) |
|
Importance of the Chanute experience |
|
|
1352 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Direct Potable Reuse in Windhoek, Namibia |
|
|
1352 | (9) |
|
|
|
1353 | (1) |
|
|
|
1353 | (1) |
|
|
|
1354 | (5) |
|
|
|
1359 | (2) |
|
Case Study: Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Project in Denver, Colorado |
|
|
1361 | (14) |
|
|
|
1362 | (1) |
|
|
|
1362 | (1) |
|
|
|
1362 | (2) |
|
Water quality testing and studies |
|
|
1364 | (7) |
|
Animal health effects testing |
|
|
1371 | (1) |
|
Cost estimates on the potable reuse advanced treatment plant |
|
|
1372 | (1) |
|
Public information program |
|
|
1373 | (1) |
|
|
|
1374 | (1) |
|
Observations on Direct Potable Reuse |
|
|
1375 | (4) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1376 | (1) |
|
|
|
1376 | (3) |
|
Part 5 Implementing Water Reuse |
|
|
1379 | (162) |
|
Planning for Water Reclamation and Reuse |
|
|
1381 | (54) |
|
|
|
1382 | (2) |
|
Integrated Water Resources Planning |
|
|
1384 | (8) |
|
Integrated water resources planning process |
|
|
1385 | (1) |
|
|
|
1386 | (1) |
|
|
|
1386 | (1) |
|
Gathering background information |
|
|
1386 | (2) |
|
Identifying project alternatives |
|
|
1388 | (1) |
|
Evaluating and ranking alternatives |
|
|
1389 | (1) |
|
Developing implementation plans |
|
|
1389 | (3) |
|
Engineering Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse Planning |
|
|
1392 | (1) |
|
Environmental Assessment and Public Participation |
|
|
1392 | (1) |
|
|
|
1393 | (1) |
|
Public participation and outreach |
|
|
1393 | (1) |
|
Legal and Institutional Aspects of Water Reuse |
|
|
1393 | (4) |
|
|
|
1393 | (2) |
|
Water rights and water reuse |
|
|
1395 | (2) |
|
|
|
1397 | (1) |
|
Institutional coordination |
|
|
1397 | (1) |
|
Case Study: Institutional Arrangements at the Walnut Valley Water District, California |
|
|
1397 | (2) |
|
|
|
1397 | (1) |
|
|
|
1398 | (1) |
|
Reclaimed Water Market Assessment |
|
|
1399 | (7) |
|
Steps in data collection and analysis |
|
|
1399 | (1) |
|
Comparison of water sources |
|
|
1399 | (2) |
|
Comparison with costs and revenues |
|
|
1401 | (1) |
|
|
|
1402 | (4) |
|
Factors Affecting Monetary Evaluation of Water Reclamation and Reuse |
|
|
1406 | (5) |
|
Common weaknesses in water reclamation and reuse planning |
|
|
1407 | (1) |
|
Perspectives in project analysis |
|
|
1408 | (1) |
|
Planning and design time horizons |
|
|
1408 | (1) |
|
|
|
1409 | (1) |
|
Inflation and cost indices |
|
|
1409 | (2) |
|
Economic Analysis for Water Reuse |
|
|
1411 | (11) |
|
Comparison of alternatives by present worth analysis |
|
|
1412 | (1) |
|
Measurement of costs and inflation |
|
|
1412 | (1) |
|
|
|
1412 | (2) |
|
Basic assumptions of economic analyses |
|
|
1414 | (1) |
|
Replacement costs and salvage values |
|
|
1415 | (2) |
|
Computation of economic cost |
|
|
1417 | (3) |
|
|
|
1420 | (1) |
|
|
|
1421 | (1) |
|
|
|
1422 | (13) |
|
Construction financial plans and revenue programs |
|
|
1422 | (1) |
|
|
|
1423 | (1) |
|
Influence on freshwater rates |
|
|
1423 | (1) |
|
Other financial analysis considerations |
|
|
1423 | (1) |
|
Sources of revenue and pricing of reclaimed water |
|
|
1424 | (1) |
|
Financial feasibility analysis |
|
|
1425 | (4) |
|
Sensitivity analysis and conservative assumptions |
|
|
1429 | (1) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1430 | (2) |
|
|
|
1432 | (3) |
|
Public Participation and Implementation Issues |
|
|
1435 | (106) |
|
|
|
1436 | (1) |
|
How Is Water Reuse Perceived? |
|
|
1436 | (4) |
|
Public attitude about water reuse |
|
|
1436 | (4) |
|
Public beliefs about water reuse options |
|
|
1440 | (1) |
|
Public Perspectives on Water Reuse |
|
|
1440 | (3) |
|
Water quality and public health |
|
|
1441 | (1) |
|
|
|
1441 | (1) |
|
|
|
1441 | (1) |
|
Environmental justice/equity issues |
|
|
1441 | (1) |
|
|
|
1442 | (1) |
|
|
|
1442 | (1) |
|
Public Participation and Outreach |
|
|
1443 | (7) |
|
|
|
1443 | (1) |
|
Legal mandates for public involvement |
|
|
1443 | (1) |
|
|
|
1444 | (1) |
|
Approaches to public involvement |
|
|
1444 | (2) |
|
Techniques for public participation and outreach |
|
|
1446 | (2) |
|
Some pitfalls in types of public involvement |
|
|
1448 | (2) |
|
Case Study: Difficulties Encountered in Redwood City's Landscape Irrigation Project |
|
|
1450 | (1) |
|
|
|
1450 | (1) |
|
|
|
1450 | (1) |
|
Water reclamation project planned |
|
|
1450 | (2) |
|
|
|
1452 | |
|
Case Study: Water Reclamation and Reuse in the City of St. Petersburg, Florida |
|
|
1451 | (8) |
|
|
|
1453 | (1) |
|
Water and wastewater management issues |
|
|
1453 | (2) |
|
Development of reclaimed water system |
|
|
1455 | (1) |
|
Current status of water reclamation and reuse |
|
|
1456 | (1) |
|
|
|
1456 | (3) |
|
Access to city's proactive water reclamation and reuse information |
|
|
1459 | (1) |
|
Observations on Water Reclamation and Reuse |
|
|
1459 | (4) |
|
Problems and Discussion Topics |
|
|
1459 | (1) |
|
|
|
1460 | (3) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1463 | (8) |
|
Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air |
|
|
1471 | (4) |
|
Physical Properties of Water |
|
|
1475 | (4) |
|
Statistical Analysis of Data |
|
|
1479 | (6) |
|
Review of Water Reclamation Activities in the United States and in Selected Countries |
|
|
1485 | (24) |
|
Evolution of Nonpotable Reuse Criteria and Groundwater Recharge Regulations in California |
|
|
1509 | (14) |
|
Values of the Hantush Function F(a, β) and the Well Function W(u) |
|
|
1523 | (2) |
|
Interest Factors and Their Use |
|
|
1525 | (4) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1529 | (12) |
|
|
|
1541 | |
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