Preface |
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xxiii | |
1 Introduction: Matter, Energy, and Measurement |
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2 | (40) |
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1.1 The Study of Chemistry |
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4 | (3) |
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The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry |
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4 | (1) |
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5 | (2) |
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1.2 Classifications of Matter |
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7 | (5) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (2) |
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12 | (3) |
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Physical and Chemical Changes |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (2) |
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15 | (2) |
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Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy |
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15 | (2) |
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17 | (7) |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (3) |
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1.6 Uncertainty in Measurement |
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24 | (4) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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Significant Figures in Calculations |
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26 | (2) |
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28 | (5) |
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28 | (2) |
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Using Two or More Conversion Factors |
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30 | (1) |
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Conversions Involving Volume |
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31 | (2) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (4) |
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39 | (3) |
2 Atoms, Molecules and Ions |
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42 | (40) |
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2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter |
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44 | (1) |
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2.2 The Discovery of Atomic Structure |
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45 | (4) |
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Cathode Rays and Electrons |
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45 | (2) |
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47 | (1) |
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The Nuclear Model of the Atom |
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48 | (1) |
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2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure |
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49 | (4) |
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Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes |
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51 | (2) |
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53 | (2) |
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53 | (1) |
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53 | (2) |
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55 | (3) |
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2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds |
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58 | (2) |
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Molecules and Chemical Formulas |
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58 | (1) |
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Molecular and Empirical Formulas |
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58 | (1) |
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59 | (1) |
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2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds |
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60 | (5) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (3) |
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2.8 Naming Inorganic Compounds |
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65 | (6) |
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Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds |
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65 | (4) |
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Names and Formulas of Acids |
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69 | (1) |
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Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds |
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70 | (1) |
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2.9 Some Simple Organic Compounds |
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71 | (3) |
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71 | (1) |
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Some Derivatives of Alkanes |
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72 | (2) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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74 | (1) |
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74 | (1) |
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75 | (1) |
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75 | (5) |
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80 | (2) |
3 Chemical Reactions and Reaction Stoichiometry |
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82 | (38) |
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84 | (4) |
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84 | (1) |
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A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation |
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85 | (2) |
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Indicating the States of Reactants and Products |
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87 | (1) |
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3.2 Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity |
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88 | (2) |
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Combination and Decomposition Reactions |
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88 | (2) |
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90 | (1) |
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90 | (3) |
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Formula and Molecular Weights |
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91 | (1) |
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Percentage Composition from Chemical Formulas |
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92 | (1) |
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3.4 Avogadro's Number and the Mole |
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93 | (5) |
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94 | (2) |
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Interconverting Masses and Moles |
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96 | (1) |
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Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles |
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97 | (1) |
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3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses |
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98 | (4) |
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Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas |
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100 | (1) |
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101 | (1) |
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3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations |
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102 | (4) |
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106 | (4) |
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Theoretical and Percent Yields |
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108 | (2) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (6) |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution |
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120 | (42) |
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4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions |
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122 | (4) |
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Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes |
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122 | (1) |
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How Compounds Dissolve in Water |
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123 | (1) |
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Strong and Weak Electrolytes |
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124 | (2) |
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4.2 Precipitation Reactions |
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126 | (4) |
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Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds |
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126 | (1) |
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Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions |
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127 | (2) |
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Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions |
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129 | (1) |
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4.3 Acids, Bases, and Neutralization Reactions |
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130 | (7) |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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Strong and Weak Acids and Bases |
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132 | (1) |
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Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes |
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132 | (2) |
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Neutralization Reactions and Salts |
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134 | (2) |
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Neutralization Reactions with Gas Formation |
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136 | (1) |
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4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions |
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137 | (7) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (2) |
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Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (3) |
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4.5 Concentrations of Solutions |
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144 | (4) |
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144 | (1) |
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Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte |
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145 | (1) |
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Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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4.6 Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis |
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148 | (5) |
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150 | (3) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (1) |
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154 | (1) |
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154 | (5) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (1) |
5 Thermochemistry |
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162 | (50) |
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5.1 The Nature of Chemical Energy |
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164 | (2) |
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5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics |
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166 | (6) |
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166 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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Relating DE to Heat and Work |
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168 | (2) |
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Endothermic and Exothermic Processes |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (2) |
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172 | (4) |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (2) |
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5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction |
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176 | (2) |
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178 | (5) |
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Heat Capacity and Specific Heat |
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179 | (1) |
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Constant-Pressure Calorimetry |
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180 | (2) |
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Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (3) |
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5.7 Enthalpies of Formation |
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186 | (4) |
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Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction |
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188 | (2) |
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190 | (4) |
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Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions |
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192 | (2) |
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194 | (6) |
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194 | (2) |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (3) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (1) |
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201 | (1) |
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202 | (6) |
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208 | (2) |
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210 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
6 Electronic Structure of Atoms |
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212 | (44) |
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6.1 The Wave Nature of Light |
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214 | (2) |
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6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons |
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216 | (3) |
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Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy |
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216 | (1) |
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The Photoelectric Effect and Photons |
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217 | (2) |
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6.3 Line Spectra and the Bohr Model |
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219 | (5) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom |
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221 | (3) |
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Limitations of the Bohr Model |
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224 | (1) |
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6.4 The Wave Behavior of Matter |
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224 | (3) |
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The Uncertainty Principle |
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226 | (1) |
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6.5 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals |
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227 | (4) |
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Orbitals and Quantum Numbers |
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228 | (3) |
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6.6 Representations of Orbitals |
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231 | (3) |
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231 | (2) |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (1) |
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234 | (2) |
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Orbitals and Their Energies |
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235 | (1) |
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Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle |
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236 | (1) |
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6.8 Electron Configurations |
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236 | (5) |
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238 | (2) |
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Condensed Electron Configurations |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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The Lanthanides and Actinides |
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241 | (1) |
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6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table |
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241 | (5) |
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Anomalous Electron Configurations |
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244 | (2) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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246 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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248 | (5) |
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253 | (2) |
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255 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
7 Periodic Properties of the Elements |
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256 | (42) |
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7.1 Development of the Periodic Table |
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258 | (1) |
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7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge |
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259 | (3) |
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7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions |
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262 | (6) |
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Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii |
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264 | (1) |
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Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii |
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264 | (4) |
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268 | (4) |
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Variations in Successive Ionization Energies |
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268 | (1) |
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Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies |
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269 | (1) |
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Electron Configurations of Ions |
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270 | (2) |
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272 | (1) |
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Periodic Trends in Electron Affinity |
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273 | (1) |
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7.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids |
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273 | (5) |
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274 | (2) |
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276 | (2) |
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278 | (1) |
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7.7 Trends for Group 1A and Group 2A Metals |
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278 | (5) |
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Group 1A: The Alkali Metals |
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278 | (4) |
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Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals |
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282 | (1) |
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7.8 Trends for Selected Nonmetals |
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283 | (5) |
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283 | (1) |
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Group 6A: The Oxygen Group |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | (2) |
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Group 8A: The Noble Gases |
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287 | (1) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (4) |
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294 | (2) |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding |
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298 | (40) |
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8.1 Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule |
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300 | (1) |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (5) |
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Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation |
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302 | (2) |
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Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements |
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304 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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306 | (3) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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8.4 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity |
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309 | (6) |
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309 | (1) |
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Electronegativity and Bond Polarity |
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310 | (1) |
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311 | (3) |
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Comparing Ionic and Covalent Bonding |
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314 | (1) |
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8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures |
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315 | (4) |
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Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures |
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317 | (2) |
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319 | (3) |
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321 | (1) |
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8.7 Exceptions to the Octet Rule |
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322 | (3) |
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323 | (1) |
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Less Than an Octet of Valence Electrons |
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323 | (1) |
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More Than an Octet of Valence Electrons |
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324 | (1) |
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8.8 Strengths and Lengths of Covalent Bonds |
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325 | (3) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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328 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (5) |
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334 | (1) |
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335 | (2) |
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337 | (1) |
9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories |
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338 | (56) |
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340 | (2) |
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342 | (10) |
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Applying the VSEPR Model to Determine Molecular Shapes |
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343 | (4) |
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Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles |
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347 | (1) |
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Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells |
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347 | (3) |
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Shapes of Larger Molecules |
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350 | (2) |
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9.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity |
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352 | (2) |
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9.4 Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap |
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354 | (1) |
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355 | (6) |
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355 | (2) |
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sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals |
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357 | (2) |
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359 | (1) |
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359 | (2) |
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361 | (7) |
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Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and pi Bonding |
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365 | (2) |
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General Conclusions about sigma and pi Bonding |
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367 | (1) |
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368 | (3) |
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Molecular Orbitals of the Hydrogen Molecule |
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368 | (2) |
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370 | (1) |
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9.8 Bonding in Period 2 Diatomic Molecules |
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371 | (11) |
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Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 |
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372 | (1) |
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Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals |
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373 | (3) |
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Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2 |
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376 | (1) |
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Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties |
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377 | (3) |
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Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules |
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380 | (2) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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382 | (1) |
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383 | (1) |
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384 | (1) |
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384 | (5) |
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389 | (3) |
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392 | (1) |
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393 | (1) |
10 Gases |
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394 | (40) |
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10.1 Characteristics of Gases |
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396 | (1) |
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397 | (3) |
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Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer |
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397 | (3) |
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400 | (3) |
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The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle's Law |
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400 | (1) |
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The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles's Law |
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401 | (1) |
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The Quantity-Volume Relationship: Avogadro's Law |
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402 | (1) |
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10.4 The Ideal-Gas Equation |
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403 | (4) |
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Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws |
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406 | (1) |
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10.5 Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation |
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407 | (3) |
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Gas Densities and Molar Mass |
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407 | (2) |
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Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions |
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409 | (1) |
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10.6 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures |
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410 | (2) |
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Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions |
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411 | (1) |
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10.7 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases |
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412 | (3) |
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Distributions of Molecular Speed |
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413 | (1) |
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Application of Kinetic-Molecular Theory to the Gas Laws |
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414 | (1) |
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10.8 Molecular Effusion and Diffusion |
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415 | (4) |
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416 | (1) |
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Diffusion and Mean Free Path |
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417 | (2) |
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10.9 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior |
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419 | (4) |
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The van der Waals Equation |
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421 | (2) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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424 | (6) |
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430 | (2) |
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432 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
11 Liquids and Intermolecular Forces |
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434 | (38) |
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11.1 A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids |
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436 | (2) |
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11.2 Intermolecular Forces |
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438 | (7) |
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439 | (1) |
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Dipole-Dipole Interactions |
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440 | (1) |
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441 | (3) |
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444 | (1) |
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Comparing Intermolecular Forces |
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444 | (1) |
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11.3 Select Properties of Liquids |
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445 | (4) |
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446 | (1) |
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447 | (1) |
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448 | (1) |
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449 | (4) |
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Energy Changes Accompany Phase Changes |
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449 | (1) |
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450 | (1) |
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Critical Temperature and Pressure |
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451 | (2) |
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453 | (3) |
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Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature |
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454 | (1) |
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Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point |
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455 | (1) |
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456 | (3) |
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The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2 |
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457 | (2) |
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459 | (3) |
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459 | (3) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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462 | (1) |
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463 | (1) |
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463 | (5) |
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468 | (2) |
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470 | (1) |
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471 | (1) |
12 Solids and Modern Materials |
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472 | (52) |
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12.1 Classification of Solids |
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474 | (1) |
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12.2 Structures of Solids |
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475 | (3) |
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Crystalline and Amorphous Solids |
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475 | (1) |
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Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices |
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475 | (2) |
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477 | (1) |
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478 | (8) |
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The Structures of Metallic Solids |
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479 | (1) |
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480 | (3) |
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483 | (3) |
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486 | (3) |
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486 | (1) |
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487 | (2) |
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489 | (5) |
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Structures of Ionic Solids |
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490 | (4) |
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494 | (1) |
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12.7 Covalent-Network Solids |
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494 | (6) |
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495 | (2) |
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497 | (3) |
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500 | (6) |
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501 | (3) |
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Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers |
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504 | (2) |
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506 | (6) |
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Semiconductors on the Nanoscale |
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506 | (1) |
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507 | (2) |
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509 | (3) |
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Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
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512 | (1) |
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513 | (1) |
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513 | (1) |
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514 | (7) |
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521 | (1) |
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522 | (1) |
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523 | (1) |
13 Properties of Solutions |
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524 | (44) |
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13.1 The Solution Process |
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526 | (4) |
|
The Natural Tendency toward Mixing |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solution Formation |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
Energetics of Solution Formation |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
13.2 Saturated Solutions and Solubility |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility |
|
|
532 | (6) |
|
Solute-Solvent Interactions |
|
|
532 | (2) |
|
|
534 | (3) |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
13.4 Expressing Solution Concentration |
|
|
538 | (4) |
|
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Converting Concentration Units |
|
|
540 | (2) |
|
13.5 Colligative Properties |
|
|
542 | (10) |
|
|
542 | (2) |
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
Freezing-Point Depression |
|
|
545 | (2) |
|
|
547 | (3) |
|
Determination of Molar Mass from Colligative Properties |
|
|
550 | (2) |
|
|
552 | (4) |
|
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids |
|
|
553 | (2) |
|
Colloidal Motion in Liquids |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (6) |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
|
567 | (1) |
14 Chemical Kinetics |
|
568 | (54) |
|
14.1 Factors That Affect Reaction Rates |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
|
571 | (4) |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
14.3 Concentration and Rate Laws |
|
|
575 | (6) |
|
Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law |
|
|
577 | (2) |
|
Magnitudes and Units of Rate Constants |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
14.4 The Change of Concentration with Time |
|
|
581 | (6) |
|
|
581 | (2) |
|
|
583 | (2) |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
|
585 | (2) |
|
14.5 Temperature and Rate |
|
|
587 | (6) |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
Determining the Activation Energy |
|
|
591 | (2) |
|
|
593 | (7) |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
|
593 | (2) |
|
Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step |
|
|
598 | (2) |
|
|
600 | (8) |
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
|
603 | (5) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
609 | (8) |
|
|
617 | (3) |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
|
621 | (1) |
15 Chemical Equilibrium |
|
622 | (42) |
|
15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium |
|
|
625 | (2) |
|
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant |
|
|
627 | (5) |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium Constants and Units |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
15.3 Understanding and Working with Equilibrium Constants |
|
|
632 | (4) |
|
The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
Relating Chemical Equation Stoichiometry and Equilibrium Constants |
|
|
634 | (2) |
|
15.4 Heterogeneous Equilibria |
|
|
636 | (2) |
|
15.5 Calculating Equilibrium Constants |
|
|
638 | (2) |
|
15.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constants |
|
|
640 | (4) |
|
Predicting the Direction of Reaction |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations |
|
|
642 | (2) |
|
15.7 Le Chatelier's Principle |
|
|
644 | (10) |
|
Change in Reactant or Product Concentration |
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes |
|
|
647 | (2) |
|
Effect of Temperature Changes |
|
|
649 | (2) |
|
|
651 | (3) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
656 | (5) |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
663 | (1) |
16 Acid-Base Equilibria |
|
664 | (52) |
|
16.1 Arrhenius Acids and Bases |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
16.2 Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases |
|
|
667 | (5) |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
Proton-Transfer Reactions |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs |
|
|
668 | (2) |
|
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases |
|
|
670 | (2) |
|
16.3 The Autoionization of Water |
|
|
672 | (2) |
|
|
672 | (2) |
|
|
674 | (4) |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
16.5 Strong Acids and Bases |
|
|
678 | (2) |
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
|
680 | (10) |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
683 | (4) |
|
|
687 | (3) |
|
|
690 | (3) |
|
|
690 | (3) |
|
16.8 Relationship between Ka and Kb |
|
|
693 | (3) |
|
16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions |
|
|
696 | (3) |
|
An Anion's Ability to React with Water |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
A Cation's Ability to React with Water |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution |
|
|
697 | (2) |
|
16.10 Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure |
|
|
699 | (5) |
|
Factors That Affect Acid Strength |
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
701 | (2) |
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases |
|
|
704 | (3) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
|
708 | (5) |
|
|
713 | (2) |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
|
715 | (1) |
17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria |
|
716 | (50) |
|
17.1 The Common-Ion Effect |
|
|
718 | (3) |
|
|
721 | (8) |
|
Composition and Action of Buffers |
|
|
721 | (2) |
|
Calculating the pH of a Buffer |
|
|
723 | (3) |
|
Buffer Capacity and pH Range |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers |
|
|
726 | (3) |
|
17.3 Acid-Base Titrations |
|
|
729 | (10) |
|
Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations |
|
|
730 | (2) |
|
Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations |
|
|
732 | (4) |
|
Titrating with an Acid-Base Indicator |
|
|
736 | (2) |
|
Titrations of Polyprotic Acids |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
17.4 Solubility Equilibria |
|
|
739 | (4) |
|
The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
|
741 | (2) |
|
17.5 Factors That Affect Solubility |
|
|
743 | (8) |
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
|
744 | (2) |
|
Formation of Complex Ions |
|
|
746 | (3) |
|
|
749 | (2) |
|
17.6 Precipitation and Separation of Ions |
|
|
751 | (2) |
|
Selective Precipitation of Ions |
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
17.7 Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements |
|
|
753 | (3) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
|
758 | (5) |
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
|
764 | (1) |
|
|
765 | (1) |
18 Chemistry of the Environment |
|
766 | (42) |
|
|
768 | (6) |
|
Composition of the Atmosphere |
|
|
769 | (1) |
|
Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere |
|
|
770 | (3) |
|
Ozone in the Stratosphere |
|
|
773 | (1) |
|
18.2 Human Activities and Earth's Atmosphere |
|
|
774 | (10) |
|
The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion |
|
|
774 | (2) |
|
Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain |
|
|
776 | (3) |
|
Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog |
|
|
779 | (1) |
|
Greenhouse Gases: Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate |
|
|
780 | (4) |
|
|
784 | (3) |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
Salt Water: Earth's Oceans and Seas |
|
|
785 | (1) |
|
Freshwater and Groundwater |
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
18.4 Human Activities and Water Quality |
|
|
787 | (5) |
|
Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality |
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
Water Purification: Desalination |
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
Water Purification: Municipal Treatment |
|
|
789 | (3) |
|
|
792 | (5) |
|
|
794 | (1) |
|
Greener Reagents and Processes |
|
|
794 | (3) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
|
798 | (5) |
|
|
803 | (1) |
|
|
804 | (1) |
|
|
805 | (3) |
19 Chemical Thermodynamics |
|
808 | (40) |
|
19.1 Spontaneous Processes |
|
|
808 | (4) |
|
Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity |
|
|
809 | (1) |
|
Reversible and Irreversible Processes |
|
|
810 | (2) |
|
19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics |
|
|
812 | (3) |
|
The Relationship between Entropy and Heat |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
The Second Law of Thermodynamics |
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
19.3 The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics |
|
|
815 | (7) |
|
Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level |
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
Boltzmann's Equation and Microstates |
|
|
816 | (2) |
|
Molecular Motions and Energy |
|
|
818 | (1) |
|
Making Qualitative Predictions about AS |
|
|
819 | (2) |
|
The Third Law of Thermodynamics |
|
|
821 | (1) |
|
19.4 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions |
|
|
822 | (3) |
|
Temperature Variation of Entropy |
|
|
822 | (1) |
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
Calculating the Standard Entropy Change for a Reaction |
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings |
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
|
825 | (5) |
|
Standard Free Energy of Formation |
|
|
828 | (2) |
|
19.6 Free Energy and Temperature |
|
|
830 | (2) |
|
19.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant |
|
|
832 | (4) |
|
Free Energy under Nonstandard Conditions |
|
|
832 | (2) |
|
Relationship between DeltaG° and K |
|
|
834 | (2) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
836 | (1) |
|
|
837 | (1) |
|
|
837 | (1) |
|
|
838 | (6) |
|
|
844 | (2) |
|
|
846 | (1) |
|
|
847 | (1) |
20 Electrochemistry |
|
848 | (52) |
|
20.1 Oxidation States and Oxidation-Reduction Reactions |
|
|
850 | (2) |
|
20.2 Balancing Redox Equations |
|
|
852 | (5) |
|
|
852 | (1) |
|
Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions |
|
|
852 | (3) |
|
Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution |
|
|
855 | (2) |
|
|
857 | (3) |
|
20.4 Cell Potentials under Standard Conditions |
|
|
860 | (8) |
|
Standard Reduction Potentials |
|
|
861 | (5) |
|
Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents |
|
|
866 | (2) |
|
20.5 Free Energy and Redox Reactions |
|
|
868 | (3) |
|
Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant |
|
|
869 | (2) |
|
20.6 Cell Potentials under Nonstandard Conditions |
|
|
871 | (6) |
|
|
872 | (2) |
|
|
874 | (3) |
|
20.7 Batteries and Fuel Cells |
|
|
877 | (5) |
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
Nickel-Cadmium and Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries |
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
|
879 | (1) |
|
|
879 | (3) |
|
|
882 | (2) |
|
Corrosion of Iron (Rusting) |
|
|
882 | (1) |
|
Preventing Corrosion of Iron |
|
|
883 | (1) |
|
|
884 | (5) |
|
Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis |
|
|
886 | (3) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
889 | (1) |
|
|
890 | (1) |
|
|
890 | (1) |
|
|
890 | (7) |
|
|
897 | (1) |
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
|
899 | (1) |
21 Nuclear Chemistry |
|
900 | (42) |
|
21.1 Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations |
|
|
902 | (3) |
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
Types of Radioactive Decay |
|
|
903 | (2) |
|
21.2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability |
|
|
905 | (4) |
|
|
905 | (2) |
|
|
907 | (1) |
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
21.3 Nuclear Transmutations |
|
|
909 | (3) |
|
Accelerating Charged Particles |
|
|
910 | (1) |
|
Reactions Involving Neutrons |
|
|
911 | (1) |
|
|
911 | (1) |
|
21.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay |
|
|
912 | (5) |
|
|
913 | (2) |
|
Calculations Based on Half-Life |
|
|
915 | (2) |
|
21.5 Detection of Radioactivity |
|
|
917 | (2) |
|
|
917 | (2) |
|
21.6 Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions |
|
|
919 | (3) |
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
21.7 Nuclear Power: Fission |
|
|
922 | (6) |
|
|
925 | (2) |
|
|
927 | (1) |
|
21.8 Nuclear Power: Fusion |
|
|
928 | (2) |
|
21.9 Radiation in the Environment and Living Systems |
|
|
930 | (3) |
|
|
931 | (2) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
933 | (1) |
|
|
934 | (1) |
|
|
935 | (1) |
|
|
935 | (4) |
|
|
939 | (1) |
|
|
940 | (1) |
|
|
941 | (1) |
22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals |
|
942 | (44) |
|
22.1 Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions |
|
|
944 | (2) |
|
|
945 | (1) |
|
|
946 | (4) |
|
|
946 | (1) |
|
|
947 | (1) |
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
|
949 | (1) |
|
Binary Hydrogen Compounds |
|
|
949 | (1) |
|
22.3 Group 8A: The Noble Gases |
|
|
950 | (2) |
|
|
951 | (1) |
|
22.4 Group 7A: The Halogens |
|
|
952 | (3) |
|
Properties and Production of the Halogens |
|
|
952 | (2) |
|
|
954 | (1) |
|
|
954 | (1) |
|
|
954 | (1) |
|
|
954 | (1) |
|
|
955 | (3) |
|
|
955 | (1) |
|
|
956 | (1) |
|
|
956 | (1) |
|
|
956 | (1) |
|
|
956 | (2) |
|
Peroxides and Superoxides |
|
|
958 | (1) |
|
22.6 The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po |
|
|
958 | (4) |
|
Occurrence and Production of S, Se, and Te |
|
|
959 | (1) |
|
Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium |
|
|
959 | (1) |
|
|
959 | (1) |
|
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur |
|
|
960 | (2) |
|
|
962 | (3) |
|
|
962 | (1) |
|
Production and Uses of Nitrogen |
|
|
962 | (1) |
|
Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen |
|
|
962 | (1) |
|
Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen |
|
|
963 | (2) |
|
22.8 The Other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb, and Bi |
|
|
965 | (4) |
|
Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus |
|
|
966 | (1) |
|
|
966 | (1) |
|
Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus |
|
|
967 | (2) |
|
|
969 | (3) |
|
Elemental Forms of Carbon |
|
|
969 | (1) |
|
|
970 | (1) |
|
Carbonic Acid and Carbonates |
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
972 | (1) |
|
22.10 The Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb |
|
|
972 | (4) |
|
General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements |
|
|
972 | (1) |
|
Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon |
|
|
973 | (1) |
|
|
973 | (2) |
|
|
975 | (1) |
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
976 | (2) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
|
979 | (1) |
|
|
979 | (4) |
|
|
983 | (1) |
|
|
984 | (1) |
|
|
985 | (1) |
23 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry |
|
986 | (44) |
|
23.1 The Transition Metals |
|
|
988 | (4) |
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
Electron Configurations and Oxidation States |
|
|
990 | (1) |
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
23.2 Transition-Metal Complexes |
|
|
992 | (5) |
|
The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner's Theory |
|
|
993 | (2) |
|
|
995 | (1) |
|
Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries |
|
|
996 | (1) |
|
23.3 Common Ligands in Coordination Chemistry |
|
|
997 | (6) |
|
Metals and Chelates in Living Systems |
|
|
999 | (4) |
|
23.4 Nomenclature and Isomerism in Coordination Chemistry |
|
|
1003 | (6) |
|
|
1005 | (1) |
|
|
1005 | (1) |
|
|
1006 | (3) |
|
23.5 Color and Magnetism in Coordination Chemistry |
|
|
1009 | (2) |
|
|
1009 | (2) |
|
Magnetism of Coordination Compounds |
|
|
1011 | (1) |
|
23.6 Crystal-Field Theory |
|
|
1011 | (10) |
|
Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes |
|
|
1015 | (2) |
|
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes |
|
|
1017 | (4) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
|
1022 | (4) |
|
|
1026 | (2) |
|
|
1028 | (1) |
|
|
1029 | (1) |
24 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry |
|
1030 | (50) |
|
24.1 General Characteristics of Organic Molecules |
|
|
1032 | (2) |
|
The Structures of Organic Molecules |
|
|
1032 | (1) |
|
The Stability of Organic Compounds |
|
|
1033 | (1) |
|
Solubility and Acid-Base Properties of Organic Compounds |
|
|
1033 | (1) |
|
24.2 Introduction to Hydrocarbons |
|
|
1034 | (7) |
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
|
1036 | (3) |
|
|
1039 | (1) |
|
|
1039 | (2) |
|
24.3 Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic Hydrocarbons |
|
|
1041 | (7) |
|
|
1041 | (2) |
|
|
1043 | (1) |
|
Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes |
|
|
1044 | (1) |
|
|
1045 | (1) |
|
Stabilization of 7T Electrons by Delocalization |
|
|
1046 | (1) |
|
Substitution Reactions of Aromatic Hydrocarbons |
|
|
1046 | (2) |
|
24.4 Organic Functional Groups |
|
|
1048 | (7) |
|
|
1048 | (2) |
|
|
1050 | (1) |
|
|
1050 | (1) |
|
Carboxylic Acids and Esters |
|
|
1051 | (3) |
|
|
1054 | (1) |
|
24.5 Chirality in Organic Chemistry |
|
|
1055 | (2) |
|
24.6 Introduction to Biochemistry |
|
|
1057 | (1) |
|
|
1057 | (5) |
|
|
1057 | (2) |
|
Polypeptides and Proteins |
|
|
1059 | (1) |
|
|
1060 | (2) |
|
|
1062 | (3) |
|
|
1063 | (1) |
|
|
1064 | (1) |
|
|
1065 | (2) |
|
|
1065 | (1) |
|
|
1066 | (1) |
|
|
1067 | (4) |
|
Chapter Summary and Key Terms |
|
|
1071 | (1) |
|
|
1072 | (1) |
|
|
1072 | (5) |
|
|
1077 | (1) |
|
|
1078 | (1) |
|
|
1079 | (1) |
Appendices |
|
|
A Mathematical Operations |
|
|
1080 | (7) |
|
|
1087 | (1) |
|
C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C) |
|
|
1088 | (4) |
|
D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants |
|
|
1092 | (2) |
|
E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C |
|
|
1094 | |