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El. knyga: Electrochemical Supercapacitors for Energy Storage and Delivery: Fundamentals and Applications

(University of Waterloo, Canada), ,
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Yu, Chabot (both chemical engineering, U. of Waterloo, Canada), and Zhang (Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, National Research Council of Canada) introduce technical and practical aspects of electrochemical supercapacitors, a special type of capacitor that can store relatively high energy density compared to the storage capacity of conventional capacitors. They begin with the basic electrochemical theory and calculations, components, and characterization techniques. Then they consider structure and options for device packing and evaluate choices for electrode, electrolyte, current collector, and sealant materials based on comparisons of available data. Engineers from raw undergraduates to grizzled veterans could use the book as a reference. Annotation ©2013 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)

Although recognized as an important component of all energy storage and conversion technologies, electrochemical supercapacitators (ES) still face development challenges in order to reach their full potential. A thorough examination of development in the technology during the past decade, Electrochemical Supercapacitors for Energy Storage and Delivery: Fundamentals and Applications provides a comprehensive introduction to the ES from technical and practical aspects and crystallization of the technology, detailing the basics of ES as well as its components and characterization techniques.

The book illuminates the practical aspects of understanding and applying the technology within the industry and provides sufficient technical detail of newer materials being developed by experts in the field which may surface in the future. The book discusses the technical challenges and the practical limitations and their associated parameters in ES technology. It also covers the structure and options for device packaging and materials choices such as electrode materials, electrolyte, current collector, and sealants based on comparison of available data.

Supplying an in depth understanding of the components, design, and characterization of electrochemical supercapacitors, the book has wide-ranging appeal to industry experts and those new to the field. It can be used as a reference to apply to current work and a resource to foster ideas for new devices that will further the technology as it becomes a larger part of main stream energy storage.

Recenzijos

"... one of the best aspects of this book is in the excellent technical details describing other devices (conventional capacitors and batteries) to illustrate the differences between these energy-storage devices. Also, the condensed but very informative descriptions of some of the equipment used to characterize ES materials (SEM, TEM, x-ray analysis) are very enlightening for those who do not typically use these devices. There are excellent descriptions of the theory and application of these imaging and analytical instrumentations. The book provides a wonderful illustration of electrochemical supercapacitors for understanding the practical aspects of the technology. It also provides sufficient technical details on new materials for possible future use in ES components. Readers will gain a comprehensive understanding of the components, designs, and characterizations of ES. Those in industry and academia will benefit from this book." John J. Shea, from IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, July/August Vol. 31, No. 4

"This book offers an essential background to researchers involved in the development of supercapacitors and may represent both a reference and a starting point for academic and industrial scientists. Also students and post-graduate fellows will find it a comprehensive and valuable resource." Catia Arbizzani, University of Bologna

Series Preface xiii
Preface xv
Authors xvii
1 Fundamentals of Electric Capacitors
1(36)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.1.1 History
1(1)
1.2 Electric Charge, Electric Field, and Electric Potential and Their Implications for Capacitor Cell Voltage
2(4)
1.2.1 Electric Charge
2(2)
1.2.2 Electric Field and Potential
4(1)
1.2.3 Implication of Electric Potential in Capacitor Cell Voltage
5(1)
1.3 Capacitance Definition and Calculation
6(9)
1.3.1 Dielectric Materials and Constants
9(2)
1.3.1.1 Dielectric Polarization Mechanisms
11(1)
1.3.1.2 Ceramic Dielectrics and Their Capacitors
11(1)
1.3.1.3 Electrolytic Dielectrics and Their Capacitors
12(1)
1.3.1.4 Paper and Polymer Dielectrics and Their Capacitors
13(1)
1.3.1.5 Classification of Dielectric Materials
13(2)
1.4 Capacitor Charging and Recharging Processes
15(5)
1.4.1 DC and AC Currents
15(2)
1.4.2 Charging of Capacitor: RC Time
17(1)
1.4.3 Discharge of Capacitor
18(2)
1.5 Energy Storage in Capacitor
20(1)
1.6 Capacitor Containing Electrical Circuits and Corresponding Calculation
21(11)
1.6.1 Circuit Resistors
21(1)
1.6.2 Circuit Capacitors
21(2)
1.6.3 Inductors
23(1)
1.6.4 Resistor--Inductor Circuits
23(2)
1.6.5 Inductor--Capacitor Circuits
25(1)
1.6.5 Resistor--Inductor--Capacitor Circuits
26(1)
1.6.6 Resistive, Capacitive, and Inductive Loads for AC Circuits
27(1)
1.6.6.1 Series Resistor--Inductor--Capacitor Circuit
28(3)
1.6.6.2 RLC Circuits Having Other R, L, and C Combinations
31(1)
1.7 Types and Structures of Capacitors
32(2)
1.7.1 Fixed Capacitors
32(1)
1.7.2 Variable Capacitors
32(1)
1.7.3 Power Capacitors
33(1)
1.7.4 High-Voltage Capacitors
33(1)
1.7.5 Interference-Suppression Capacitors
33(1)
1.7.6 Ferrodielectric Capacitors
34(1)
1.7.7 Polar Polymer Dielectric Capacitors
34(1)
1.7.8 Linear and Nonlinear Capacitors
34(1)
1.8 Summary
34(3)
References
35(2)
2 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Double-Layer Supercapacitors
37(62)
2.1 Introduction
37(1)
2.2 Electrode and Electrolyte Interfaces and Their Capacitances
38(16)
2.2.1 Electric Double-Layer at Interface of Electrode and Electrolyte Solution
39(6)
2.2.2 Double-Layer Net Charge Density by Gouy--Chapman--Stern (GCS) Modeling
45(2)
2.2.3 Theoretical Differential Capacitance of Electric Double-Layer
47(1)
2.2.4 Differential Capacitance of Entire Double-Layer
48(2)
2.2.5 Potential Drop Distribution within Electric Double-Layer
50(1)
2.2.6 Factors Affecting Double-Layer Capacitance
51(1)
2.2.7 Specific Adsorption of Ions and Effect on Double-Layer
52(2)
2.3 Electrode Potential and Double-Layer Potential Windows Using Different Electrode Materials and Electrolytes
54(4)
2.3.1 Electrode Potential
54(2)
2.3.2 Double-Layer Potential Ranges or Windows
56(2)
2.4 Capacitance of Porous Carbon Materials
58(4)
2.4.1 Carbon Particles and Their Associated Electrode Layers
59(2)
2.4.2 Capacitances of Porous Carbon Materials and Their Associated Electrode Layers
61(1)
2.5 Electrochemical Double-Layer Supercapacitors
62(17)
2.5.1 Structure and Capacitance
62(2)
2.5.2 Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)
64(1)
2.5.2.1 Thermal Degradation from ESR
65(1)
2.5.3 Leakage Resistance
66(1)
2.5.3.1 Self Discharge through Leakage Mechanisms
67(2)
2.5.4 Supercapacitor Charging and Discharging
69(1)
2.5.4.1 Charging at Constant Cell Voltage
69(1)
2.5.4.2 Charging at Constant Cell Current
70(2)
2.5.4.3 Discharging Supercapacitor Cell at Constant Resistance
72(1)
2.5.4.4 Discharging Supercapacitor Cell at Constant Voltage
73(1)
2.5.4.5 Discharging Supercapacitor Cell at Constant Current
74(2)
2.5.4.6 Charging and Discharging Curves at Constant Current
76(3)
2.5.4.7 AC Impedance Equivalent Circuit
79(1)
2.6 Energy and Power Densities of Electrochemical Supercapacitors
79(10)
2.6.1 Energy Densities
79(2)
2.6.2 Power Densities
81(5)
2.6.3 Ragone Plot: Relationship of Energy Density and Power Density
86(3)
2.7 Supercapacitor Stacking
89(2)
2.7.1 Stacking in Series
89(1)
2.7.2 Stacking in Parallel
90(1)
2.8 Double-Layer Supercapacitors versus Batteries
91(2)
2.9 Applications of Supercapacitors
93(2)
2.10 Summary
95(4)
References
95(4)
3 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Pseudocapacitors
99(36)
3.1 Introduction
99(3)
3.2 Electrochemical Pseudocapacitance of Electrode--Electrolyte Interface
102(22)
3.2.1 Fundamental Electrochemistry of Pseudocapacitance
102(6)
3.2.2 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Underpotential Deposition
108(4)
3.2.3 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Lithium Intercalation
112(1)
3.2.4 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Redox Couples
113(1)
3.2.4.1 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Dissolved Couples
113(2)
3.2.4.2 Pseudocapacitance Induced by Undissolved Redox Couples
115(5)
3.2.5 Pseudocapacitance Induced in Electrically Conducting Polymer (ECP)
120(1)
3.2.6 Coupling of Differential Double-Layer and Pseudocapacitance
121(3)
3.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Equivalent Circuits
124(2)
3.4 Materials, Electrodes, and Cell Designs
126(5)
3.4.1 Electrode Materials
126(3)
3.4.2 Cell Designs (Symmetric versus Asymmetric)
129(2)
3.5 Summary
131(4)
References
132(3)
4 Components and Materials for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
135(68)
4.1 Introduction
135(2)
4.1.1 Traditional Capacitors
135(1)
4.1.2 Electrochemical Supercapacitors
136(1)
4.2 Anode and Cathode Structures and Materials
137(43)
4.2.1 Overview of Battery Functions and Materials
137(5)
4.2.2 Introducing Electrode Requirements for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
142(1)
4.2.3 Electrode Conductivity
143(1)
4.2.4 Surface Area for EDLC Design
143(1)
4.2.5 Pore Structure for EDLC Design
144(2)
4.2.6 Functionalization Effects on EDLCs
146(4)
4.2.7 Series Resistance in EDLC Design
150(1)
4.2.8 EDLC Electrode Materials
151(1)
4.2.8.1 Activated Carbons
151(2)
4.2.8.2 Templated Active Carbons
153(3)
4.2.8.3 Carbon Nanotubes
156(4)
4.2.8.4 Carbon Onions
160(1)
4.2.8.5 Graphene
161(4)
4.2.8.6 Carbon Nanofibers
165(1)
4.2.9 Pseudocapacitive Materials
166(1)
4.2.9.1 Storage Overview
166(1)
4.2.9.2 Transition Metal Oxides
167(4)
4.2.9.3 Transition Metal Nitrides
171(2)
4.2.9.4 Conducting Polymers
173(4)
4.2.10 Asymmetric Structures
177(3)
4.3 Electrolyte Structures and Materials
180(9)
4.3.1 Electrolyte Overview
180(1)
4.3.1.1 Electrolyte Decomposition
181(1)
4.3.2 Aqueous Electrolytes
182(1)
4.3.3 Organic Electrolytes
183(1)
4.3.4 Ionic Liquids
184(1)
4.3.5 Solid State Polymer Electrolytes
185(4)
4.4 Separator Structures
189(1)
4.5 Current Collectors
190(2)
4.6 Sealants
192(2)
4.7 Summary
194(9)
References
194(9)
5 Electrochemical Supercapacitor Design, Fabrication, and Operation
203(44)
5.1 Introduction
203(1)
5.2 Design Considerations
204(4)
5.2.1 Cell Voltage
204(1)
5.2.2 Frequency Response
205(1)
5.2.3 Lifetime and Cycle Charging
205(2)
5.2.4 Polarity
207(1)
5.2.5 Heat and Temperature Effects
207(1)
5.2.6 Humidity
208(1)
5.3 Single Cell Manufacturing
208(8)
5.3.1 Electrode Materials
208(1)
5.3.2 Electrode Fabrication
209(1)
5.3.3 Electrolyte Preparation
209(1)
5.3.4 Current Collector Preparation
210(1)
5.3.5 Single Cell Structure and Assembly
210(2)
5.3.5.1 Coin Cells
212(1)
5.3.5.2 Cylindrical Cells
212(1)
5.3.5.3 Pouch Cells
213(1)
5.3.6 Considerations for Contact Area and Positioning
214(2)
5.4 Supercapacitor Stack Manufacturing and Construction
216(3)
5.4.1 Cell Stacking to Form Modules
216(1)
5.4.2 Utilizing Bipolar Design
217(2)
5.5 Voltage Cell Balancing
219(2)
5.5.1 Passive Balancing
220(1)
5.5.1.1 Resistance Balancing
220(1)
5.5.1.2 Zener Diode Balancing
221(1)
5.5.2 Active Balancing
221(1)
5.6 Cell Aging and Voltage Decay
221(3)
5.7 Self Discharging
224(2)
5.8 Patent Review
226(14)
5.8.1 Patents on Electrode Materials
226(9)
5.8.2 Patents on Electrolytes
235(1)
5.8.3 Patents on ES Designs
235(5)
5.9 Major Commercial ES Products
240(5)
5.10 Summary
245(2)
References
245(2)
6 Coupling with Batteries and Fuel Cells
247(30)
6.1 Introduction
247(1)
6.2 Coupling ES Systems with Other Energy Devices
247(1)
6.3 Hybrid Systems
248(2)
6.4 Supercapacitor Integration with Batteries
250(5)
6.4.1 ES--Battery Direct Coupling: Passive Control
251(1)
6.4.2 ES--Battery Indirect Coupling: Active Control
252(2)
6.4.3 Control Strategies
254(1)
6.5 Supercapacitor Integration with Fuel Cells
255(2)
6.6 System Modeling and Optimization
257(15)
6.6.1 Supercapacitor Modeling
259(1)
6.6.1.1 Classic and Advanced Equivalent Series Models
260(1)
6.6.1.2 Ladder Circuit Model
261(1)
6.6.1.3 Multifactor Electrical Model
262(2)
6.6.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Modeling
264(1)
6.6.3 Power Systems Modeling
264(1)
6.6.4 Optimization of Models
265(3)
6.6.5 Control and Optimization of ESS
268(3)
6.6.5.1 Sizing and Costs
271(1)
6.7 Improving Dynamic Response and Transient Stability
272(2)
6.8 Summary
274(3)
References
274(3)
7 Characterization and Diagnosis Techniques for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
277(40)
7.1 Introduction
277(1)
7.2 Electrochemical Cell Design and Fabrication
278(4)
7.2.1 Conventional Three-Electrode Cell Design and Fabrication
278(1)
7.2.2 Two-Electrode Test Cell Design and Assembly
278(2)
7.2.3 Differences between Three- and Two-Electrode Cell Supercapacitor Characterizations
280(2)
7.3 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)
282(9)
7.3.1 Double-Layer Specific Capacitance Characterization Using Three-Electrode Cell
284(3)
7.3.2 Double-Layer Specific Capacitance Characterization Using Two-Electrode Test Cell
287(1)
7.3.3 Potential Scan Rate Effect on Specific Capacitance
288(1)
7.3.4 Pseudosupercapacitor Characterization by Cyclic Voltammetry
289(2)
7.4 Charging--Discharging Curve
291(3)
7.4.1 Capacitance, Maximum Energy and Power Densities, and Equivalent Series Resistance Measurements
292(2)
7.4.2 Cycle Life Measurement Using Charging--Discharging Curves
294(1)
7.5 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
294(10)
7.5.1 Measurement and Instrumentation
295(1)
7.5.2 Equivalent Circuits
295(7)
7.5.3 Supercapacitor Data Simulation to Obtain Parameter Values
302(2)
7.6 Physical Characterization of Supercapacitor Materials
304(7)
7.6.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
304(2)
7.6.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
306(1)
7.6.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
307(1)
7.6.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)
308(1)
7.6.5 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
308(1)
7.6.6 Raman Spectroscopy (RS)
309(1)
7.6.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
310(1)
7.7 Brunauer--Emmett--Teller (BET) Method
311(1)
7.8 Summary
312(5)
References
312(5)
8 Applications of Electrochemical Supercapacitors
317(18)
8.1 Introduction
317(1)
8.2 Power Electronics
318(1)
8.3 Memory Protection
318(3)
8.4 Battery Enhancement
321(2)
8.5 Portable Energy Sources
323(1)
8.6 Power Quality Improvement
324(2)
8.7 Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs)
326(2)
8.7.1 Energy Storage Options for Different ASD Power Ratings
327(1)
8.8 High Power Sensors and Actuators
328(1)
8.9 Hybrid Electric Vehicles
328(2)
8.10 Renewable and Off-Peak Energy Storage
330(1)
8.11 Military and Aerospace Applications
331(1)
8.12 Summary
332(3)
References
332(3)
9 Perspectives and Challenges
335(14)
9.1 Introduction
335(1)
9.2 Market Challenges
336(1)
9.3 Electrode Material Challenges
337(6)
9.3.1 Current Collectors
337(1)
9.3.2 Double-Layer Electrode Materials
338(1)
9.3.3 Pseudocapacitor Electrode Materials
339(1)
9.3.3.1 Transition Metal Oxides
339(1)
9.3.3.2 Conductive Polymers
340(1)
9.3.4 Composite Electrode Materials
341(2)
9.4 Electrolyte Innovations
343(1)
9.5 Development of Computational Tools
343(1)
9.6 Future Perspectives and Research Directions
344(5)
References
345(4)
Index 349
Aiping Yu is an assistant professor at the University of Waterloo in Canada. She earned her PhD from the University of California Riverside. Her research interests are materials and modeling development for energy storage and conversion, photocatalysts, and nanocomposites. Dr. Yu has published over 35 papers in peer-reviewed journals such as Science and one book chapter relating to supercapacitors. She currently is the editorial member of the Nature: Scientific Reports. Her work has been featured by major media such as Nature: Nanotechnology, Photonics.com, and Azonano.com. Her patent for graphene nanomaterials has been licensed to a company in San Jose. Victor Chabot received his bachelor's degree in nanoengineering from the University of Waterloo and currently is pursuing his graduate degree in chemical engineering at the University of Waterloo. His research focuses on nanomaterial development for high energy density supercapacitors. Jiujun Zhang is a principal research officer and technical leader at the National Research Council of Canadas Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI), now the council's Energy, Mining, and Environment (NRC-EME) portfolio. Dr. Zhang earned a BS and MSc in electrochemistry from Peking University in 1982 and 1985, respectively, and a PhD in electrochemistry from Wuhan University in 1988. After completing his doctorate, he took a position as an associate professor at the Huazhong Normal University for 2 years. Starting in 1990, he carried out three terms of postdoctoral research at the California Institute of Technology, York University, and the University of British Columbia. Dr. Zhang has over 28 years of research and development experience in theoretical and applied electrochemistry, 14 of which were spent working on fuel cells at Ballard Power Systems and at NRC-IFCI. He also spent 3 years researching electrochemical sensors. Dr. Zhang holds adjunct professorships at the University of Waterloo, the University of British Columbia, and at Peking University. To date, Dr. Zhang has co-authored or edited more than 300 publications including 190 refereed journal papers with approximately 4,700 citations, books, conference proceeding papers, book chapters, and 50 conference and invited oral presentations. He also holds over 10 patents worldwide along with 9 U.S. patent publications and has produced more than 80 industrial technical reports. Dr. Zhang serves as an editor or editorial board member for several international journals and is also the editor for CRC's Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion series of books. Dr. Zhang is an active member of the Electrochemical Society, the International Society of Electrochemistry and the American Chemical Society.
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