|
A leaf cell consists of several metabolic compartments |
|
|
1 | (44) |
|
The cell wall gives the plant cell mechanical stability |
|
|
4 | (5) |
|
The cell wall consists mainly of carbohydrates and proteins |
|
|
4 | (3) |
|
Plasmodesmata connect neighboring cells |
|
|
7 | (2) |
|
Vacuoles have multiple functions |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
Plastids have evolved from cyanobacteria |
|
|
10 | (5) |
|
Mitochondria also result from endosymbionts |
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
Peroxisomes are the site of reactions in which toxic intermediates are formed |
|
|
16 | (2) |
|
The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus form a network for the distribution of biosynthesis products |
|
|
18 | (4) |
|
Functionally intact cell organelles can be isolated from plant cells |
|
|
22 | (2) |
|
Various transport processes facilitate the exchange of metabolites between different compartments |
|
|
24 | (2) |
|
Translocators catalyze the specific transport of substrates and products of metabolism |
|
|
26 | (6) |
|
Translocators have a common basic structure |
|
|
29 | (2) |
|
Aquaporins make cell membranes permeable for water |
|
|
31 | (1) |
|
Ion channels have a very high transport capacity |
|
|
32 | (5) |
|
Porins consist of β-sheet structures |
|
|
37 | (8) |
|
|
|
40 | (5) |
|
The use of energy from sunlight by photosynthesis is the basis of life on earth |
|
|
45 | (22) |
|
How did photosynthesis start? |
|
|
45 | (2) |
|
Pigments capture energy from sunlight |
|
|
47 | (5) |
|
The energy content of light depends on its wavelength |
|
|
47 | (2) |
|
Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment |
|
|
49 | (3) |
|
Light absorption excites the chlorophyll molecule |
|
|
52 | (4) |
|
The return of the chlorophyll molecule from the first singlet state to the ground state can proceed in different ways |
|
|
55 | (1) |
|
An antenna is required to capture light |
|
|
56 | (11) |
|
How is the excitation energy of the photons, which have been captured in the antennae, transferred to the reaction centers? |
|
|
58 | (1) |
|
The function of an antenna can be illustrated using the antenna of photosystem II as an example |
|
|
59 | (3) |
|
Phycobilisomes enable cyanobacteria and red algae to carry out photosynthesis even in dim light |
|
|
62 | (4) |
|
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
Photosynthesis is an electron transport process |
|
|
67 | (48) |
|
The photosynthetic machinery is constructed from modules |
|
|
67 | (4) |
|
A reductant and an oxidant are formed during photosynthesis |
|
|
71 | (1) |
|
The basic structure of a photosynthetic reaction center has been resolved by X-ray structure analysis |
|
|
72 | (5) |
|
X-ray structure analysis of the photosynthetic reaction center |
|
|
74 | (1) |
|
The reaction center of Rhodopseudomonas viridis has a symmetric structure |
|
|
75 | (2) |
|
How does a reaction center function? |
|
|
77 | (4) |
|
Two photosynthetic reaction centers are arranged in tandem in photosynthesis of algae and plants |
|
|
81 | (3) |
|
Water is split by photosystem II |
|
|
84 | (8) |
|
Photosystem II complex is very similar to the reaction center in purple bacteria |
|
|
88 | (2) |
|
Mechanized agriculture usually necessitates the use of herbicides |
|
|
90 | (2) |
|
The cytochrome-b6/f complex mediates electron transport between photosystem II and photosystem I |
|
|
92 | (7) |
|
Iron atoms in cytochromes and in iron-sulfur centers have a central function as redox carriers |
|
|
92 | (3) |
|
The electron transport by the cytochrome-b6/f complex is coupled to a proton transport |
|
|
95 | (3) |
|
The number of protons pumped through the cyt-b6/f complex can be doubled by a Q-cycle |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
Photosystem I reduces NADP |
|
|
99 | (5) |
|
In cyclic electron transport by PS I light energy is used for the synthesis of ATP only |
|
|
103 | (1) |
|
In the absence of other acceptors electrons can be transferred from photosystem I to oxygen |
|
|
104 | (4) |
|
Regulatory processes control the distribution of the captured photons between the two photosystems |
|
|
108 | (7) |
|
Excess light energy is eliminated as heat |
|
|
110 | (2) |
|
|
|
112 | (3) |
|
ATP is generated by photosynthesis |
|
|
115 | (20) |
|
A proton gradient serves as an energy-rich intermediate state during ATP synthesis |
|
|
116 | (3) |
|
The electron chemical proton gradient can be dissipated by uncouplers to heat |
|
|
119 | (2) |
|
The chemiosmotic hypothesis was proved experimentally |
|
|
121 | (1) |
|
H+-ATP synthases from bacteria, chloroplasts, and mitochondria have a common basic structure |
|
|
121 | (6) |
|
X-ray structure analysis of the F1 part of ATP synthase yields an insight into the machinery of ATP synthesis |
|
|
125 | (2) |
|
The synthesis of ATP is effected by a conformation change of the protein |
|
|
127 | (8) |
|
In photosynthetic electron transport the stoichiometry between the formation of NADPH and ATP is still a matter of debate |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
H+-ATP synthase of chloroplasts is regulated by light |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
V-ATPase is related to the F-ATP synthase |
|
|
131 | (1) |
|
|
|
132 | (3) |
|
Mitochondria are the power station of the cell |
|
|
135 | (30) |
|
Biological oxidation is preceded by a degradation of substrates to form bound hydrogen and CO2 |
|
|
135 | (1) |
|
Mitochondria are the sites of cell respiration |
|
|
136 | (2) |
|
Mitochondria form a separated metabolic compartment |
|
|
137 | (1) |
|
Degradation of substrates for biological oxidation takes place in the matrix compartment |
|
|
138 | (7) |
|
Pyruvate is oxidized by a multienzyme complex |
|
|
138 | (3) |
|
Acetate is completely oxidized in the citrate cycle |
|
|
141 | (3) |
|
A loss of intermediates of the citrate cycle is replenished by anaplerotic reactions |
|
|
144 | (1) |
|
How much energy can be gained by the oxidation of NADH? |
|
|
145 | (2) |
|
The mitochondrial respiratory chain shares common features with the photosynthetic electron transport chain |
|
|
147 | (6) |
|
The complexes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain |
|
|
149 | (4) |
|
Electron transport of the respiratory chain is coupled to the synthesis of ATP via proton transport |
|
|
153 | (4) |
|
Mitochondrial proton transport results in the formation of a membrane potential |
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
Mitochondrial ATP synthesis serves the energy demand of the cytosol |
|
|
156 | (1) |
|
Plant mitochondria have special metabolic functions |
|
|
157 | (3) |
|
Mitochondria can oxidize surplus NADH without forming ATP |
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
NADH and NADPH from the cytosol can be oxidized by the respiratory chain of plant mitochondria |
|
|
159 | (1) |
|
Compartmentation of mitochondrial metabolism requires specific membrane translocators |
|
|
160 | (5) |
|
|
|
162 | (3) |
|
The Calvin cycle catalyzes photosynthetic CO2 assimilation |
|
|
165 | (30) |
|
CO2 assimilation proceeds via the dark reaction of photosynthesis |
|
|
166 | (2) |
|
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase catalyzes the fixation of CO2 |
|
|
168 | (6) |
|
The oxygenation of ribulose bisphosphate: a costly side-reaction |
|
|
170 | (2) |
|
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase: special features |
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
Activation of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase |
|
|
172 | (2) |
|
The reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate yields triose phosphate |
|
|
174 | (2) |
|
Ribulose bisphosphate is regenerated from triose phosphate |
|
|
176 | (7) |
|
Besides the reductive pentose phosphate pathway there is also an oxidative pentose phosphate pathway |
|
|
183 | (4) |
|
Reductive and oxidative pentose phosphate pathways are regulated |
|
|
187 | (8) |
|
Reduced thioredoxins transmit the signal for ``illumination'' to enzyme proteins |
|
|
187 | (2) |
|
The thioredoxin modulated activation of chloroplast enzymes releases an inbuilt blockage |
|
|
189 | (1) |
|
An abundance of further regulatory processes ensures that the various steps of the reductive pentose phosphate pathway are matched |
|
|
190 | (2) |
|
|
|
192 | (3) |
|
In the photorespiratory pathway phosphoglycolate formed by the oxygenase activity of RubisCo is recycled |
|
|
195 | (18) |
|
Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate is recovered by recycling 2-phosphoglycolate |
|
|
195 | (6) |
|
The NH4+ released in the photorespiratory pathway is refixed in the chloroplasts |
|
|
201 | (2) |
|
For the reduction of hydroxypyruvate, peroxisomes have to be provided with external reducing equivalents |
|
|
203 | (4) |
|
Reducing equivalents are taken up into the peroxisomes via a malate-oxaloacetate shuttle |
|
|
203 | (2) |
|
Mitochondria export reducing equivalents via a malate-oxaloacetate shuttle |
|
|
205 | (1) |
|
A ``malate valve'' controls the export of reducing equivalents from the chloroplasts |
|
|
205 | (2) |
|
The peroxisomal matrix is a special compartment for the disposal of toxic products |
|
|
207 | (1) |
|
How high are the costs of the ribulose bisphosphate oxygenase reaction for the plant? |
|
|
208 | (1) |
|
There is no net CO2 fixation at the compensation point |
|
|
209 | (1) |
|
The photorespiratory pathway, although energy-consuming, may also have a useful function for the plant |
|
|
210 | (3) |
|
|
|
211 | (2) |
|
Photosynthesis implies the consumption of water |
|
|
213 | (30) |
|
The uptake of CO2 into the leaf is accompanied by an escape of water vapor |
|
|
213 | (2) |
|
Stomata regulate the gas exchange of a leaf |
|
|
215 | (4) |
|
Malate plays an important role in guard cell metabolism |
|
|
215 | (2) |
|
Complex regulation governs stomatal opening |
|
|
217 | (2) |
|
The diffusive flux of CO2 into a plant cell |
|
|
219 | (3) |
|
C4 plants perform CO2 assimilation with less water consumption than C3 plants |
|
|
222 | (13) |
|
The CO2 pump in C4 plants |
|
|
223 | (2) |
|
C4 metabolism of the NADP-malic enzyme type plants |
|
|
225 | (4) |
|
C4 metabolism of the NAD-malic enzyme type |
|
|
229 | (2) |
|
C4 metabolism of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase type |
|
|
231 | (2) |
|
Kranz-anatomy with its mesophyll and bundle sheath cells is not an obligatory requirement for C4 metabolism |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
Enzymes of C4 metabolism are regulated by light |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
Products of C4 metabolism can be identified by mass spectrometry |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
C4 plants include important crop plants but also many of the worst weeds |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
Crassulacean acid metabolism makes it possible for plants to survive even during a very severe water shortage |
|
|
235 | (8) |
|
CO2 fixed during the night is stored in the form of malic acid |
|
|
236 | (2) |
|
Photosynthesis proceeds with closed stomata |
|
|
238 | (2) |
|
C4 as well as CAM metabolism has been developed several times during evolution |
|
|
240 | (1) |
|
|
|
240 | (3) |
|
Polysaccharides are storage and transport forms of carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis |
|
|
243 | (32) |
|
Starch and sucrose are the main products of CO2 assimilation in many plants |
|
|
244 | (1) |
|
Large quantities of carbohydrate can be stored as starch in the cell |
|
|
244 | (11) |
|
Starch is synthesized via ADP-glucose |
|
|
248 | (2) |
|
Degradation of starch proceeds in two different ways |
|
|
250 | (3) |
|
Surplus photosynthesis products can be stored temporarily in chloroplasts by starch synthesis |
|
|
253 | (2) |
|
Sucrose synthesis takes place in the cytosol |
|
|
255 | (2) |
|
The utilization of the photosynthesis product triose phosphate is strictly regulated |
|
|
257 | (6) |
|
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase functions as an entrance valve for the pathway of sucrose synthesis |
|
|
257 | (4) |
|
Sucrose phosphate synthase is regulated not only by metabolites but also by covalent modification |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
Partitioning of assimilates between sucrose and starch is due to the interplay of several regulatory mechanisms |
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
In some plants assimilates from the leaves are exported as sugar alcohols or oligosaccharides of the raffinose family |
|
|
263 | (2) |
|
Fructans are deposited as storage substances in the vacuole |
|
|
265 | (4) |
|
Cellulose is synthesized by enzymes located in the plasma membrane |
|
|
269 | (6) |
|
Synthesis of callose is often induced by wounding |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
Cell wall polysaccharides are also synthesized in the Golgi apparatus |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
|
|
271 | (4) |
|
Nitrate assimilation is essential for the synthesis of organic matter |
|
|
275 | (34) |
|
The reduction of nitrate to NH3 proceeds in two partial reactions |
|
|
276 | (6) |
|
Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in the cytosol |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
The reduction of nitrite to ammonia proceeds in the plastids |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
The fixation of NH4+ proceeds in the same way as in photorespiration |
|
|
280 | (2) |
|
Nitrate assimilation also takes place in the roots |
|
|
282 | (2) |
|
The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway provides reducing equivalents for nitrite reduction in leucoplasts |
|
|
282 | (2) |
|
Nitrate assimilation is strictly controlled |
|
|
284 | (4) |
|
The synthesis of the nitrate reductase protein is regulated at the level of gene expression |
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
Nitrate reductase is also regulated by reversible covalent modification |
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
14-3-3 Proteins are important metabolic regulators |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
The regulation of nitrate reductase and of sucrose phosphate synthase have great similarities |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
The end-product of nitrate assimilation is a whole spectrum of amino acids |
|
|
288 | (14) |
|
CO2 assimilation provides the carbon skeletons to synthesize the end-products of nitrate assimilation |
|
|
288 | (2) |
|
The synthesis of glutamate requires the participation of mitochondrial metabolism |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
Biosynthesis of proline and arginine |
|
|
291 | (2) |
|
Aspartate is the precursor of five amino acids |
|
|
293 | (2) |
|
Acetolactate synthase participates in the synthesis of hydrophobic amino acids |
|
|
295 | (4) |
|
Aromatic amino acids are synthesized via the shikimate pathway |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
Glyphosate acts as an herbicide |
|
|
299 | (2) |
|
A large proportion of the total plant matter can be formed by the shikimate pathway |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
Glutamate is precursor for synthesis of chlorophylls and cytochromes |
|
|
302 | (7) |
|
Protophorphyrin is also a precursor for heme synthesis |
|
|
304 | (2) |
|
|
|
306 | (3) |
|
Nitrogen fixation enables the nitrogen in the air to be used for plant growth |
|
|
309 | (16) |
|
Legumes form a symbiosis with nodule-forming bacteria |
|
|
310 | (8) |
|
The formation of nodules is due to a regulated interplay of the expression of specific bacteria and plant genes |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
Metabolic products are exchanged between bacteroids and host cells |
|
|
313 | (2) |
|
Nitrogenase reductase delivers electrons for the nitrogenase reaction |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
N2 as well as H+ are reduced by dinitrogenase |
|
|
316 | (2) |
|
N2 fixation can proceed only at very low oxygen concentrations |
|
|
318 | (2) |
|
The energy costs for utilizing N2 as a nitrogen source are much higher than for the utilization of NO3 |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
Plants improve their nutrition by symbiosis with fungi |
|
|
320 | (2) |
|
The arbuscular mycorrhiza is widespread |
|
|
321 | (1) |
|
Ectomycorrhiza supplies trees with nutrients |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
Root nodule symbioses may have evolved from a preexisting pathway for the formation of arbuscular mycorrhiza |
|
|
322 | (3) |
|
|
|
323 | (2) |
|
Sulfate assimilation enables the synthesis of sulfur-containing substances |
|
|
325 | (14) |
|
Sulfate assimilation proceeds primarily by photosynthesis |
|
|
325 | (5) |
|
Sulfate assimilation has some parallels to nitrogen assimilation |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
Sulfate is activated prior to reduction |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
Sulfite reductase is similar to nitrite reductase |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
H2S is fixed in the form of cysteine |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
Glutathione serves the cell as an antioxidant and is an agent for the detoxification of pollutants |
|
|
330 | (3) |
|
Xenobiotics are detoxified by conjugation |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
Phytochelatins protect the plant against heavy metals |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
Methionine is synthesized from cysteine |
|
|
333 | (2) |
|
S-Adenosylmethionine is a universal methylation reagent |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
Excessive concentrations of sulfur dioxide in air are toxic for plants |
|
|
335 | (4) |
|
|
|
336 | (3) |
|
Phloem transport distributes photoassimilates to the various sites of consumption and storage |
|
|
339 | (14) |
|
There are two modes of phloem loading |
|
|
341 | (2) |
|
Phloem transport proceeds by mass flow |
|
|
343 | (1) |
|
Sink tissues are supplied by phloem unloading |
|
|
344 | (9) |
|
Starch is deposited in plastids |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
The glycolysis pathway plays a central role in the utilization of carbohydrates |
|
|
345 | (5) |
|
|
|
350 | (3) |
|
Products of nitrate assimilation are deposited in plants as storage proteins |
|
|
353 | (10) |
|
Globulins are the most abundant storage proteins |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
Prolamins are formed as storage proteins in grasses |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
2S-Proteins are present in seeds of dicot plants |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
Special proteins protect seeds from being eaten by animals |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
Synthesis of the storage proteins occurs at the rough endoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
357 | (3) |
|
Proteinases mobilize the amino acids deposited in storage proteins |
|
|
360 | (3) |
|
|
|
360 | (3) |
|
Glycerolipids are membrane constituents and function as carbon stores |
|
|
363 | (40) |
|
Polar glycerolipids are important membrane constituents |
|
|
364 | (5) |
|
The fluidity of the membrane is governed by the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and the content of sterols |
|
|
365 | (2) |
|
Membrane lipids contain a variety of hydrophilic head groups |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
Sphingolipids are important constituents of the plasma membrane |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Triacylglycerols are storage substances |
|
|
369 | (3) |
|
The de novo synthesis of fatty acids takes place in the plastids |
|
|
372 | (10) |
|
Acetyl CoA is the precursor for the synthesis of fatty acids |
|
|
372 | (3) |
|
Acetyl CoA carboxylase is the first enzyme of fatty acid synthesis |
|
|
375 | (2) |
|
Further steps of fatty acid synthesis are also catalyzed by a multienzyme complex |
|
|
377 | (2) |
|
The first double bond in a newly formed fatty acid is formed by a soluble desaturase |
|
|
379 | (3) |
|
Acyl-ACP formed as product of fatty acid synthesis in the plastids serves two purposes |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
Glycerol 3-phosphate is a precursor for the synthesis of glycerolipids |
|
|
382 | (6) |
|
The ER membrane is the site of fatty acid elongation and desaturation |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
Some of the plastid membrane lipids are formed via the eukaryotic pathway |
|
|
386 | (2) |
|
Triacylglycerols are formed in the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
388 | (4) |
|
Plant fat is used not only for nutrition but also as a raw material in industry |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
Plant fats are customized by genetic engineering |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
During seed germination, storage lipids are mobilized for the production of carbohydrates in the glyoxysomes |
|
|
392 | (4) |
|
The glyoxylate cycle enables plants to synthesize hexoses from acetyl CoA |
|
|
393 | (2) |
|
Reactions with toxic intermediates take place in peroxisomes |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
Lipoxygenase is involved in the synthesis of oxylipins, which are acting as defense and signal substances |
|
|
396 | (7) |
|
|
|
401 | (2) |
|
Secondary metabolites fulfill specific ecological functions in plants |
|
|
403 | (10) |
|
Secondary metabolites often protect plants from pathogenic microorganisms and herbivores |
|
|
403 | (3) |
|
Microbes can be pathogens |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
Plants form phytoalexins in response to microbial infection |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
Plant defense substances can also be a risk for humans |
|
|
405 | (1) |
|
Alkaloids comprise a variety of heterocyclic secondary metabolites |
|
|
406 | (2) |
|
Some plants emit prussic acid when wounded by animals |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
Some wounded plants emit volatile mustard oils |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
Plants protect themselves by tricking herbivores with false amino acids |
|
|
410 | (3) |
|
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
A large diversity of isoprenoids has multiple functions in plant metabolism |
|
|
413 | (22) |
|
Higher plants have two different synthesis pathways for isoprenoids |
|
|
415 | (3) |
|
Acetyl CoA is the precursor for the synthesis of isoprenoids in the cytosol |
|
|
415 | (2) |
|
Pyruvate and D-glycerinaldehyde-3-phosphate are the precursors for the synthesis of isopentyl pyrophosphate in plastids |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
Prenyl transferases catalyze the association of isoprene units |
|
|
418 | (2) |
|
Some plants emit isoprenes into the air |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
Many aromatic substances are derived from geranyl pyrophosphate |
|
|
421 | (2) |
|
Farnesyl pyrophosphate is the precursor for the formation of sesquiterpenes |
|
|
423 | (3) |
|
Steroids are synthesized from farnesyl pyrophosphate |
|
|
424 | (2) |
|
Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate is the precursor for defense substances, phytohormones, and carotenoids |
|
|
426 | (2) |
|
Oleoresins protect trees from parasites |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
Carotene synthesis delivers pigments to plants and provides an important vitamin for humans |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
A prenyl chain renders substances lipid-soluble |
|
|
428 | (3) |
|
Proteins can be anchored in a membrane by prenylation |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Dolichols mediate the glucosylation of proteins |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
The regulation of isoprenoid synthesis |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
Isoprenoids are very stable and persistent substances |
|
|
431 | (4) |
|
|
|
432 | (3) |
|
Phenylpropanoids comprise a multitude of plant secondary metabolites and cell wall components |
|
|
435 | (20) |
|
Phenylalanine ammonia lyase catalyzes the initial reaction of phenylpropanoid metabolism |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Monooxygenases are involved in the synthesis of phenols |
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
Phenylpropanoid compounds polymerize to macromolecules |
|
|
440 | (6) |
|
Lignans act as defense substances |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
Lignin is formed by radical polymerization of phenylpropanoid derivatives |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
Suberins form gas- and water-impermeable layers between cells |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
Cutin is a gas- and water-impermeable constituent of the cuticle |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
For the synthesis of flavonoids and stilbenes a second aromatic ring is formed from acetate residues |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
The stilbenes include very potent natural fungicides |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
Flavonoids have multiple functions in plants |
|
|
448 | (2) |
|
Anthocyanins are flower pigments and protect plants against excessive light |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Tannins bind tightly to proteins and therefore have defense functions |
|
|
451 | (4) |
|
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
Multiple signals regulate the growth and development of plant organs and enable their adaptation to environmental conditions |
|
|
455 | (36) |
|
Signal chains known from animal metabolism also function in plants |
|
|
456 | (8) |
|
G-proteins act as molecular switches |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
Small G-proteins have diverse regulatory functions |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Ca++ acts as a messenger in signal transduction |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
The phosphoinositol pathway controls the opening of Ca++ channels |
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
Calmodulin mediates the messenger function of Ca++ ions |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Phosphorylated proteins form elements of signal transduction |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
Phytohormones comprise a variety of very different compounds |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Auxin stimulates shoot elongation growth |
|
|
465 | (3) |
|
Gibberellins regulate stem elongation |
|
|
468 | (3) |
|
Cytokinins stimulate cell division |
|
|
471 | (2) |
|
Abscisic acid controls the water balance of the plant |
|
|
473 | (1) |
|
Ethylene makes fruit ripen |
|
|
474 | (2) |
|
Plants also contain steroid and peptide hormones |
|
|
476 | (3) |
|
Brassinosteroids control plant development |
|
|
476 | (2) |
|
Various phytohormones are polypeptides |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
Systemin induces defense against herbivore attack |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
Phytosulfokines regulate cell proliferation |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Defense reactions are triggered by the interplay of several signals |
|
|
479 | (2) |
|
Light sensors regulate growth and development of plants |
|
|
481 | (10) |
|
|
|
485 | (6) |
|
A plant cell has three different genomes |
|
|
491 | (40) |
|
In the nucleus the genetic information is divided among several chromosomes |
|
|
492 | (3) |
|
The DNA sequences of plant nuclear genomes have been analyzed in a dicot and a monocot plant |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
The DNA of the nuclear genome is transcribed by three specialized RNA polymerases |
|
|
495 | (10) |
|
The transcription of structural genes is regulated |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Promoter and regulatory sequences regulate the transcription of genes |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
Transcription factors regulate the transcription of a gene |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Micro-RNAs inhibit gene expression by inactivating messeger RNAs |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
The transcription of structural genes requires a complex transcription apparatus |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
The formation of the messenger RNA requires processing |
|
|
501 | (2) |
|
rRNA and tRNA are synthesized by RNA polymerase I and III |
|
|
503 | (2) |
|
DNA polymorphism yields genetic markers for plant breeding |
|
|
505 | (6) |
|
Individuals of the same species can be differentiated by restriction fragment length polymorphism |
|
|
506 | (2) |
|
The RAPD technique is a simple method for investigating DNA polymorphism |
|
|
508 | (3) |
|
The polymorphism of micro-satellite DNA is used as a genetic marker |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
Transposable DNA elements roam through the genome |
|
|
511 | (2) |
|
Most plant cells contain viruses |
|
|
513 | (3) |
|
Retrotransposons are degenerated retroviruses |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
Plastids possess a circular genome |
|
|
516 | (4) |
|
The transcription apparatus of the plastids resembles that of bacteria |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
The mitochondrial genome of plants varies largely in its size |
|
|
520 | (11) |
|
Mitochondrial DNA contains incorrect information that is corrected after transcription |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Male sterility of plants caused by the mitochondria is an important tool in hybrid breeding |
|
|
525 | (4) |
|
|
|
529 | (2) |
|
Protein biosynthesis occurs at different sites of a cell |
|
|
531 | (26) |
|
Protein synthesis is catalyzed by ribosomes |
|
|
532 | (6) |
|
A peptide chain is synthesized |
|
|
534 | (3) |
|
Specific inhibitors of the translation can be used to decide whether a protein is encoded in the nucleus or the genome of plastids or mitochondria |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
The translation is regulated |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
Proteins attain their three-dimensional structure by controlled folding |
|
|
538 | (6) |
|
The folding of a protein is a multistep process |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Proteins are protected during the folding process |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Heat shock proteins protect against heat damage |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Chaperones bind to unfolded proteins |
|
|
541 | (3) |
|
Nuclearly encoded proteins are distributed throughout various cell compartments |
|
|
544 | (7) |
|
Most of the proteins imported into the mitochondria have to cross two membranes |
|
|
545 | (2) |
|
The import of proteins into chloroplasts requires several translocation complexes |
|
|
547 | (3) |
|
Proteins are imported into peroxisomes in the folded state |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
Proteins are degraded in a strictly controlled manner by proteasomes |
|
|
551 | (6) |
|
|
|
554 | (3) |
|
Gene technology makes it possible to alter plants to meet requirements of agriculture, nutrition, and industry |
|
|
557 | (38) |
|
|
|
558 | (10) |
|
A gene library is required for the isolation of a gene |
|
|
558 | (2) |
|
A gene library can be kept in phages |
|
|
560 | (2) |
|
A gene library can also be kept in plasmids |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
A gene library is screened for a certain gene |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
A clone is identified by antibodies against the gene product |
|
|
563 | (2) |
|
A clone can also be identified by DNA probes |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
Genes encoding unknown proteins can be isolated by complementation |
|
|
566 | (2) |
|
Genes can be tracked down with the help of transposons or T-DNA |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
Agrobacteria have the ability to transform plant cells |
|
|
568 | (4) |
|
The Ti plasmid contains the genetic information for tumor formation |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
Ti plasmids are used as transformation vectors |
|
|
572 | (9) |
|
A new plant is regenerated following transformation of a leaf cell |
|
|
575 | (2) |
|
Plants can be transformed by a modified shotgun |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Protoplasts can be transformed by the uptake of DNA |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
The use of plastid transformation for genetic engineering of plants is of advantage for the environment |
|
|
579 | (2) |
|
Selection of appropriate promoters enables the defined expression of an inserted gene |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
Gene products are directed into certain subcellular compartments by targeting sequences |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
Genes can be turned off by transformation |
|
|
582 | (3) |
|
Plant genetic engineering can be used for many different purposes |
|
|
585 | (10) |
|
Plants are selectively protected against some insects by the BT protein |
|
|
585 | (2) |
|
Plants can be protected against viruses by gene technology |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
The generation of fungus-resistant plants is still at an early stage |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Nonselective herbicides can be used as selective herbicide following the generation of herbicide-resistant plants |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Plant genetic engineering is used for the improvement of the yield and quality of crop products |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
Genetic engineering is used to produce raw material for industry and pharmaceuticals |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
Genetic engineering provides a chance for increasing the protection of crop plants against environmental stress |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
The introduction of transgenic cultivars requires a risk analysis |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
|
|
591 | (4) |
| Index |
|
595 | |
